{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T10:16:42Z","timestamp":1788430602785,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sensory processing differences are common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability (ID) and have been linked to maladaptive behaviour and reduced adaptive functioning, largely through caregiver-report measures. How they relate to the ecological organisation of observable challenging behaviour remains to be established. This retrospective study analysed routine care data from 70 children aged 3 to 16 years with ASD and co-occurring ID or ID alone, in which naturalistic functional behavioural assessments documented 7560 behavioural episodes. Episodes whose recorded functional hypothesis explicitly designated a sensory function were labelled sensory-motivated behaviours (SMBs), a clinically formulated hypothesis about the function of the episode. Beta-binomial models examined predictors of the proportion of episodes assigned a sensory function, and mixed-effects models accounting for the clustering of episodes within children examined the association between behavioural class and inferred function. SMBs accounted for 7.47% of episodes (565 of 7560; participant-level mean 8.19%), with substantial inter-individual variability, and because only explicit designations were retained this figure is a conservative estimate of how often practitioners attributed a sensory function. Whether the function was seeking or avoiding tracked the form of the episode, body-directed behaviours being associated with avoidance and object- or intake-directed behaviours with seeking, whereas the analyses did not detect consistent associations between the proportion of sensory episodes and either caregiver-reported sensory profiles (Sensory Profile-2) or adaptive functioning (Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales-II). The study thus provides an ecological benchmark for how often sensory functions are attributed in routine practice, and shows that the form of an episode carries information about its sensory direction that trait-level questionnaires do not.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16091561","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T09:20:43Z","timestamp":1788427243000},"page":"1561","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sensory Processing Profiles and Observed Behaviour: An Ecological, Function-Based Study of Challenging Behaviour in a Clinically Referred Sample of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and\/or Intellectual Disability"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5765-2307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Romina","family":"Rinaldi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Orthopedagogy Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"},{"name":"Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Disability and Inclusion (CIRDI), University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9482-4153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Axel","family":"Mayart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service d\u2019Accompagnement Psychologique, Le CHAF\u2014ASBL, Centre pour Personnes en Situation de HAndicap de Farciennes, 6240 Farciennes, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9651-7276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Calista Cuykens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Orthopedagogy Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"},{"name":"Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Disability and Inclusion (CIRDI), University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Willaye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Orthopedagogy Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"},{"name":"Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Disability and Inclusion (CIRDI), University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Achenbach, T. M., and Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles, University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth & Families."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2015.01.013","article-title":"Sensory processing in preterm preschoolers and its association with executive function","volume":"91","author":"Adams","year":"2015","journal-title":"Early Human Development"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aman, M. G., and Singh, N. N. (1986). Aberrant behavior checklist\u2014Manual, Slosson Educational Publications.","DOI":"10.1037\/t10453-000"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/0891-4222(95)00039-9","article-title":"The Nisonger CBRF: A child behavior rating form for children with developmental disabilities","volume":"17","author":"Aman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, American Psychiatric Publishing. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-007-0459-0","article-title":"The relationship between sensory processing patterns and behavioural responsiveness in autistic disorder","volume":"38","author":"Baker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2005.01546.x","article-title":"Sensory experiences questionnaire: Discriminating sensory features in young children with autism, developmental delays, and typical development","volume":"47","author":"Baranek","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"39","author":"Hen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.2011.44-19","article-title":"Classroom application of a trial-based functional analysis","volume":"44","author":"Bloom","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2008.10.008","article-title":"Generalized linear mixed models: A practical guide for ecology and evolution","volume":"24","author":"Bolker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.124","article-title":"Sensory features and repetitive behaviors in children with autism and developmental delays","volume":"3","author":"Boyd","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autism Research"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.32614\/RJ-2017-066","article-title":"glmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling","volume":"9","author":"Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"The R Journal"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/0895-4356(93)90018-V","article-title":"Bias, prevalence and kappa","volume":"46","author":"Byrt","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.1985.18-111","article-title":"Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training","volume":"18","author":"Carr","year":"1985","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-006-0176-0","article-title":"Physical illness, pain, and problem behavior in minimally verbal people with developmental disabilities","volume":"37","author":"Carr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579422001195","article-title":"Early developmental profiles of sensory features and links to school-age adaptive and maladaptive outcomes: A birth cohort investigation","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Development and Psychopathology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2009.07.009","article-title":"A comparison of patterns of sensory processing in children with and without developmental disabilities","volume":"30","author":"Cheung","year":"2009","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1177\/001316446002000104","article-title":"A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales","volume":"20","author":"Cohen","year":"1960","journal-title":"Educational and Psychological Measurement"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., and Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis, Pearson. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"34","article-title":"Beta-binomial ANOVA for proportions","volume":"27","author":"Crowder","year":"1978","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series C"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2008.12.007","article-title":"Maturation of sensory gating performance in children with and without sensory processing disorders","volume":"72","author":"Davies","year":"2009","journal-title":"International Journal of Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2142","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-019-03970-w","article-title":"The impact of atypical sensory processing on adaptive functioning and maladaptive behaviors in autism spectrum disorder during childhood: Results from the ELENA cohort","volume":"50","author":"Dellapiazza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-020-01516-5","article-title":"Sensory processing related to attention in children with ASD, ADHD, or typical development: Results from the ELENA cohort","volume":"30","author":"Dellapiazza","year":"2021","journal-title":"European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-010-1149-x","article-title":"Comparison of behavioral intervention and sensory-integration therapy in the treatment of challenging behavior","volume":"41","author":"Devlin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2008.06.004","article-title":"Comparison of behavioral intervention and sensory-integration therapy in the treatment of self-injurious behavior","volume":"3","author":"Devlin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1097\/00001163-199704000-00005","article-title":"The impact of sensory processing abilities on the daily lives of young children and their families: A conceptual model","volume":"9","author":"Dunn","year":"1997","journal-title":"Infants & Young Children"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1097\/01.IYC.0000264477.05076.5d","article-title":"Supporting children to participate successfully in everyday life by using sensory processing knowledge","volume":"20","author":"Dunn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infants & Young Children"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Dunn, W. (2014). Sensory profile 2: User\u2019s manual, Pearson."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Efron, B., and Tibshirani, R. J. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap, Chapman & Hall.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-4541-9"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Emerson, E. (2001). Challenging behaviour: Analysis and intervention in people with severe intellectual disabilities, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511543739"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2011.03.005","article-title":"Sensory processing dysfunctions as expressed among children with intellectual disability","volume":"32","author":"Gal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fabbri-Destro, M., Maugeri, F., Ianni, C., Corsini, S., Di Stefano, E., Scatigna, S., Crifaci, G., Bruzzi, G., Berloffa, S., Fantozzi, P., Prato, A., Muccio, R., Valente, E., Pelagatti, S., Pecchini, E., Zulli, F., Rizzo, R., Milone, A., Viglione, V., and Narzisi, A. (2022). Early sensory profile in autism spectrum disorders predicts emotional and behavioral issues. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12101593"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/0895-4356(90)90158-L","article-title":"High agreement but low kappa: I. The problems of two paradoxes","volume":"43","author":"Feinstein","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feldman, J. I., Cassidy, M., Liu, Y., Kirby, A. V., Wallace, M. T., and Woynaroski, T. G. (2020). Relations between sensory responsiveness and features of autism in children. Brain Sciences, 10, (11).","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10110775"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2091","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-020-04648-4","article-title":"Executive functioning: A mediator between sensory processing and behaviour in autism spectrum disorder","volume":"51","author":"Moreira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcped.2018.05.005","article-title":"Troubles de la modulation sensorielle et difficult\u00e9s adaptatives dans les troubles du spectre de l\u2019autisme","volume":"25","author":"Giacardy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Archives de P\u00e9diatrie"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2700","article-title":"Atypical sensory processing features in children with autism, and their relationships with maladaptive behaviors and caregiver strain","volume":"15","author":"Griffin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autism Research"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"23","article-title":"Modifying quantitative sensory testing to investigate tactile sensory function and behavioral reactivity in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities","volume":"46","author":"Gunderson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1348\/000711006X126600","article-title":"Computing inter-rater reliability and its variance in the presence of high agreement","volume":"61","author":"Gwet","year":"2008","journal-title":"British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.2003.36-147","article-title":"Functional analysis of problem behavior: A review","volume":"36","author":"Hanley","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1114","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.1114","article-title":"A comparison of observation-level random effect and beta-binomial models for modelling overdispersion in binomial data in ecology and evolution","volume":"3","author":"Harrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-010-0944-8","article-title":"Sensory responsiveness as a predictor of social severity in children with high functioning autism spectrum disorders","volume":"40","author":"Hilton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"65","article-title":"A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure","volume":"6","author":"Holm","year":"1979","journal-title":"Scandinavian Journal of Statistics"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.1994.27-197","article-title":"Toward a functional analysis of self-injury","volume":"27","author":"Iwata","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-008-0617-z","article-title":"Sensori-motor and daily living skills of preschool children with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"39","author":"Jasmin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"JASP Team (JASP (Version 0.18.3) [Computer software], 2024). JASP (Version 0.18.3) [Computer software]."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.c.30260","article-title":"Sensory modulation impairments in children with Williams syndrome","volume":"154C","author":"John","year":"2010","journal-title":"American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C: Seminars in Medical Genetics"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-010-1118-4","article-title":"Aggression in children and adolescents with ASD: Prevalence and risk factors","volume":"41","author":"Kanne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01539540","article-title":"Automatic reinforcement: Oxymoron or hypothetical construct?","volume":"4","author":"Kennedy","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Education"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.1996.29-133","article-title":"Sleep deprivation, allergy symptoms, and negatively reinforced problem behavior","volume":"29","author":"Kennedy","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.1994.27-7","article-title":"Using assessment-based curricular intervention to improve the classroom behavior of a student with emotional and behavioral challenges","volume":"27","author":"Kern","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2010.10.021","article-title":"Sensory abnormalities in autism: A brief report","volume":"32","author":"Klintwall","year":"2011","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"224","article-title":"Sensory symptoms and signs of hyperarousal in individuals with fragile X syndrome","volume":"17","author":"Lachiewicz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Autism Research"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-009-0840-2","article-title":"Sensory processing subtypes in autism: Association with adaptive behaviour","volume":"40","author":"Lane","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.2008.41-441","article-title":"A preliminary comparison of functional analysis results when conducted in contrived versus natural settings","volume":"41","author":"Lang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.2010.43-565","article-title":"Influence of assessment setting on the results of functional analyses of problem behavior","volume":"43","author":"Lang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-004-5291-1","article-title":"Factor analysis of the Nisonger child behavior rating form in children with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"34","author":"Lecavalier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1037\/a0023341","article-title":"Restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders: A review of research in the last decade","volume":"137","author":"Leekam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.1993.26-293","article-title":"Descriptive and experimental analyses of variables maintaining self-injurious behavior","volume":"26","author":"Lerman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/0891-4222(91)90004-C","article-title":"Functional analysis and treatment of aberrant behavior","volume":"12","author":"Mace","year":"1991","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48R","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e3182130c54","article-title":"Sensory processing in autism: A review of neurophysiologic findings","volume":"69","author":"Marco","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatric Research"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2010.11.012","article-title":"What is the evidence for environmental causes of challenging behaviors in persons with intellectual disabilities and autism spectrum disorders?","volume":"32","author":"Matson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361315599755","article-title":"Sensory symptoms in children with autism, other developmental disorders, and typical development","volume":"20","author":"McCormick","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03392623","article-title":"Establishing operations","volume":"16","author":"Michael","year":"1993","journal-title":"The Behavior Analyst"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.61.2.135","article-title":"Concept evolution in sensory integration: A proposed nosology for diagnosis","volume":"61","author":"Miller","year":"2007","journal-title":"American Journal of Occupational Therapy"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20170213","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2017.0213","article-title":"The coefficient of determination R2 and the intra-class correlation coefficient from generalized linear mixed-effects models revisited and expanded","volume":"14","author":"Nakagawa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Society Interface"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1111\/jir.12435","article-title":"Relationships between atypical sensory processing, maladaptive behaviour, and maternal stress in children with autism","volume":"61","author":"Nieto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Intellectual Disability Research"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, R. E., Albin, R. W., Storey, K., Horner, R. H., and Sprague, J. R. (2015). Functional assessment and program development for problem behavior, Cengage Learning. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-4222(00)00051-2","article-title":"Functional analysis of aberrant behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement: Assessments of specific sensory reinforcers","volume":"21","author":"Patel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.2000.33-13","article-title":"An evaluation of the effects of matched stimuli on behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement","volume":"33","author":"Piazza","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"R Core Team (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022837319739","article-title":"The student guided functional assessment interview: An analysis of student and teacher agreement","volume":"7","author":"Reed","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Education"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-009-0726-3","article-title":"Brief report: Effects of pressure vest usage on engagement and problem behaviors of a young child with developmental delays","volume":"39","author":"Reichow","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10882-013-9363-z","article-title":"A systematic review of trial-based functional analysis of challenging behavior","volume":"26","author":"Rispoli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470316696"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.1992.25-809","article-title":"Use of descriptive and experimental analyses to identify the functional properties of aberrant behavior in school settings","volume":"25","author":"Sasso","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s41252-022-00269-3","article-title":"Sensory processing patterns predict problem behaviours in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"7","author":"Schulz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D., and Balla, D. A. (2005). Vineland adaptive behavior scales, second edition (Vineland-II) [Database record], APA PsycTests.","DOI":"10.1037\/t15164-000"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.2005.172-04","article-title":"On the role of attention in naturally occurring matching relations","volume":"38","author":"Vollmer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361316654605","article-title":"Conducting research with minimally verbal participants with autism spectrum disorder","volume":"21","author":"Joseph","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Tass\u00e9, M. J., Lecavalier, L., and Lecavalier, D. (1999). Grille d\u2019\u00c9valuation Comportementale pour Enfants de Nisonger (GECEN), Nisonger Center, The Ohio State University."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1901\/jaba.2007.56-06","article-title":"A comparison of outcomes from descriptive and functional analyses of problem behavior","volume":"40","author":"Thompson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.61.2.190","article-title":"Sensory processing in children with and without autism: A comparative study using the Short Sensory Profile","volume":"61","author":"Tomchek","year":"2007","journal-title":"American Journal of Occupational Therapy"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"1","article-title":"mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R","volume":"45","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"217","article-title":"Automatic reinforcement: An important but ignored concept","volume":"10","author":"Vaughan","year":"1982","journal-title":"Behaviorism"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/0891-4222(94)90011-6","article-title":"The concept of automatic reinforcement: Implications for behavioral research in developmental disabilities","volume":"15","author":"Vollmer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.4067","article-title":"Multiple imputation using chained equations: Issues and guidance for practice","volume":"30","author":"White","year":"2011","journal-title":"Statistics in Medicine"},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"66","article-title":"Sensory processing and maladaptive behaviour profiles within the Down syndrome phenotype","volume":"124","author":"Will","year":"2019","journal-title":"American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1561\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T09:38:51Z","timestamp":1788428331000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1561"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16091561"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16091561","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]}}}