{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T13:13:53Z","timestamp":1788527633987,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Incarcerated women face elevated suicide risk at the intersection of chronic loss, cumulative trauma, and constrained environments. In prison, the death of a child constitutes a profound and overlooked traumatic bereavement. This conceptual manuscript examines how carceral environments restrict privacy, autonomy, family contact, mourning rituals, and social and clinical support, thereby adversely reshaping grief. The Dual Process Model of Coping and meaning-making frameworks are integrated to explain how incarceration may constrain oscillation between loss-oriented and restoration-oriented coping. Institutional functioning may resemble restoration-oriented behavior while lacking critical adaptive factors that define restorative coping. Restricted information, exclusion from rituals and relational validation, and punishment for grief-related behavior may obstruct narrative reconstruction, continuing bonds, and maternal identity reorganization. The model further considers how acute grief interacts with chronic stress, sustained threat responsivity, sleep disruption, and cumulative allostatic burden to intensify psychological and somatic distress without assuming a uniform neurobiological pathway. Social determinants of health, histories of victimization, substance use, and facility-level conditions are important sources of variation. Protective pathways are also specified, including family connection, peer support, cultural and spiritual practices, and clinical care. The paper concludes with testable propositions, a research agenda, and a framework for notification, stabilization, and continuing bereavement support.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16091573","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T12:20:46Z","timestamp":1788524446000},"page":"1573","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Traumatic Bereavement Among Incarcerated Women: Understanding and Responding to Complex Grief After the Death of a Child"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Catherine","family":"Gallagher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Criminology, Law and Society, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6817-829X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nena P.","family":"Messina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Envisioning Justice Solutions, Simi Valley, CA 93065, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.12390","article-title":"Meanings and misunderstandings: A social determinants of health lexicon for health care systems","volume":"97","author":"Alderwick","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Milbank Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s40352-021-00145-7","article-title":"Window dressing: Possibilities and limitations of incremental changes in solitary confinement","volume":"9","author":"Augustine","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health & Justice"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5545.148531","article-title":"Suicide behind bars: A 10-year retrospective study","volume":"57","author":"Bardale","year":"2015","journal-title":"Indian Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-023-00233-5","article-title":"Resilience to potential trauma and adversity through regulatory flexibility","volume":"2","author":"Bonanno","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Psychology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.23071","article-title":"The three axioms of resilience","volume":"37","author":"Bonanno","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(03)00705-4","article-title":"Physical and sexual abuse, salivary cortisol, and neurologic correlates of violent criminal behavior in female prison inmates","volume":"55","author":"Burgess","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biological Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carei, R., Steely Smith, M. K., Landon, M., Church, H., Bagdon-Cox, C., Cheong, C. K., and Zielinski, M. J. (2025). A novel exploration of women\u2019s pathways through prison and the roles of trauma, addiction, and mental health. Social Sciences, 14, (2).","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci14020105"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Carson, E. A., and Kluckow, R. (2025, September 12). Prisoners in 2022: Statistical tables (NCJ 307149), Available online: https:\/\/bjs.ojp.gov\/document\/p22st.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Covington, S. S. (2024). Hidden healers: The unexpected ways women in prison help each other survive, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781394254422"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-023-01663-8","article-title":"Neurobiology and treatment advances for prolonged grief disorder","volume":"49","author":"Donaldson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1080\/08974454.2011.609400","article-title":"The gender paradox in prison suicide rates","volume":"21","author":"Dye","year":"2011","journal-title":"Women & Criminal Justice"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2346","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380221093694","article-title":"Measuring grief in the context of traumatic loss: A systematic review of assessment instruments","volume":"24","author":"Ennis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trauma, Violence, & Abuse"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1080\/14999013.2018.1519613","article-title":"Suicidal ideation among female inmates: A cross-sectional study","volume":"18","author":"Favril","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Forensic Mental Health"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1111\/sltb.12776","article-title":"Health care disparities for incarcerated adults after a suicide attempt","volume":"51","author":"Fedock","year":"2021","journal-title":"Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1097\/01.chi.0000156281.07858.52","article-title":"The association between suicide screening practices and attempts requiring emergency care in juvenile justice facilities","volume":"44","author":"Gallagher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2005.01.002","article-title":"Deaths in juvenile justice residential facilities","volume":"38","author":"Gallagher","year":"2006a","journal-title":"Journal of Adolescent Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1521\/suli.2006.36.3.363","article-title":"Facility-level characteristics associated with serious suicide attempts and deaths from suicide in juvenile justice residential facilities","volume":"36","author":"Gallagher","year":"2006b","journal-title":"Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854807302177","article-title":"Risk of suicide in juvenile justice facilities: The problem of rate calculations in high-turnover populations","volume":"34","author":"Gallagher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Criminal Justice and Behavior"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1159\/000510696","article-title":"Allostatic load and its impact on health: A systematic review","volume":"90","author":"Guidi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732310373257","article-title":"Grief interrupted: The experience of loss among incarcerated women","volume":"21","author":"Harner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Qualitative Health Research"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1177\/1078345812445457","article-title":"National study of jail suicide: 20 years later","volume":"18","author":"Hayes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Correctional Health Care"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1017\/S1478951509000133","article-title":"Morbidity, mortality, and parental grief: A review of the literature on the relationship between the death of a child and the subsequent health of parents","volume":"7","author":"Hendrickson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Palliative and Supportive Care"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12887","DOI":"10.1111\/jne.12887","article-title":"Neuroendocrine mechanisms of grief and bereavement: A systematic review and implications for future interventions","volume":"32","author":"Hopf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1177\/0269216306072349","article-title":"Research with bereaved parents: A question of how not why","volume":"20","author":"Hynson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Palliative Medicine"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1080\/07481187.2024.2355244","article-title":"Lived experience and the dual process model of coping with bereavement: A participatory research study","volume":"49","author":"Larsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Death Studies"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.20700","article-title":"Sense and significance: A mixed methods examination of meaning making after the loss of one\u2019s child","volume":"66","author":"Lichtenthal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201300172","article-title":"A multisite study of the prevalence of serious mental illness, PTSD, and substance use disorders of women in jail","volume":"65","author":"Lynch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatric Services"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-024-00501-7","article-title":"Family members grieving the loss of a person to incarceration: A scoping review","volume":"27","author":"McLean","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1089\/jchc.18.12.0070","article-title":"Suicide completion among incarcerated women","volume":"27","author":"Mennicke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Correctional Health Care"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.24966\/AAD-7276\/100070","article-title":"The evolution of gender- and trauma-responsive interventions for justice-involved women","volume":"8","author":"Messina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Addiction & Addictive Disorders"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ugwudike, P., Graham, H., McNeill, F., Raynor, P., Taxman, F., and Trotter, C. (2020). Why gender matters: Effective gender-responsive approaches for justice-involved women. The Routledge companion to rehabilitative work in criminal justice, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315102832"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"216","article-title":"The history of research and recommendations for addressing trauma in carceral settings for women","volume":"13","author":"Messina","year":"2026","journal-title":"HSOA Journal of Addiction and Addictive Disorders"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2022.108798","article-title":"Poking the bear: The inapplicability of the RNR principles for women","volume":"140","author":"Messina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1842","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2005.082016","article-title":"Childhood trauma and women\u2019s health outcomes in a California prison population","volume":"96","author":"Messina","year":"2006","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1002\/cpp.2568","article-title":"Opening the proverbial \u201ccan of worms\u201d on trauma-specific treatment in prison: The association of adverse childhood experiences to treatment outcomes","volume":"28","author":"Messina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(24)00134-2","article-title":"Worldwide incidence of suicides in prison: A systematic review with meta-regression analyses","volume":"11","author":"Mundt","year":"2024","journal-title":"The Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1708\/1009.10982","article-title":"Reconstructing meaning in bereavement","volume":"46","author":"Neimeyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rivista di Psichiatria"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stroebe, M. S., Hansson, R. O., Schut, H., and Stroebe, W. (2008). The measurement of grief: Psychometric considerations in the assessment of reactions to bereavement. Handbook of bereavement research and practice: Advances in theory and intervention, American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/14498-000"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owen, B., Wells, J., and Pollack, J. (2017). In search of safety: Confronting inequality in women\u2019s imprisonment, University of California Press.","DOI":"10.1525\/california\/9780520288713.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(14)70224-X","article-title":"Effects of suicide bereavement on mental health and suicide risk","volume":"1","author":"Pitman","year":"2014","journal-title":"The Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-022-00635-8","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder: Clinical and translational neuroscience from cells to circuits","volume":"18","author":"Ressler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neurology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.18176\/resp.00082","article-title":"Suicidal ideation among prisoners: Analysis with a gender perspective in a five-year follow-up (2017\u20132022)","volume":"26","author":"Peraire","year":"2024","journal-title":"Revista Espa\u00f1ola de Sanidad Penitenciaria"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s40352-021-00144-8","article-title":"Trajectories of women\u2019s victimization to violence","volume":"9","author":"Saxena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health & Justice"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solomon, R. M. (2024). Traumatic bereavement. EMDR therapy treatment for grief and mourning: Transforming the connection to the deceased loved one, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198881360.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/074811899201046","article-title":"The dual process model of coping with bereavement: Rationale and description","volume":"23","author":"Stroebe","year":"1999","journal-title":"Death Studies"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.2190\/OM.61.4.b","article-title":"The dual process model of coping with bereavement: A decade on","volume":"61","author":"Stroebe","year":"2010","journal-title":"OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"161","article-title":"Prolonged grief disorder: Course, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment","volume":"19","author":"Szuhany","year":"2021","journal-title":"Focus (American Psychiatric Publishing)"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1573\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T12:23:12Z","timestamp":1788524592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1573"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16091573"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16091573","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]}}}