{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T05:10:07Z","timestamp":1788844207549,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001663","name":"Volkswagen Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["0071559"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0071559"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["0071559"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0071559"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03bsmfz84","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sleep facilitates memory consolidation across the lifespan, but few studies have investigated underlying mechanisms in early development. The present study assessed the role of sleep timing after a social learning situation for action memory in seventy-six 4-year-old children and tested if source monitoring errors explain potential sleep effects (preregistration doi: 10.17605\/OSF.IO\/QSD2E). We employed a mixed-design combining an experimental within-subject manipulation of social interaction (high-vs.-low-collaboration condition) with an observational component measuring latency to nighttime sleep onset at T1. At T1, children participated in a social learning task scheduled at different times across the day to vary the interval between encoding and nighttime onset. Immediately following the task at T1, and again two weeks later, children\u2019s memory for which actions had been performed (action memory) and who had performed them (agent memory, as an indicator of source memory) was assessed behaviorally. Sleeping behavior and the latency to nighttime sleep was assessed using actigraphy. Contrary to expectations, both action and agent memory were unrelated to latency to nighttime sleep onset after social learning and, in exploratory analyses, to sleep efficiency and sleep duration in the night following learning. Methodological aspects including the retention interval and task difficulty might have contributed to the unexpected results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16091578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T16:07:32Z","timestamp":1788538052000},"page":"1578","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Who Did It? Sleep, Source Memory, and Action Memory in Human 4-Year-Olds"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3569-0702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolin","family":"Konrad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6888-8101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebekka","family":"Heinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Partner Site Bochum\/Marburg, 44787 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neele","family":"Hermesch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8710-1178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah","family":"Gerson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiff University Centre for Human Developmental Science (CUCHDS), School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica","family":"Sommerville","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annika","family":"Fricke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonas","family":"Mo\u00df","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie-Sophie","family":"Macioszek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alica Tabea","family":"Weinert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6749-0604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabine","family":"Seehagen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Partner Site Bochum\/Marburg, 44787 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2007.08.010","article-title":"Immediate as well as delayed post learning sleep but not wakefulness enhances declarative memory consolidation in children","volume":"89","author":"Backhaus","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurobiology of Learning and Memory"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"7","article-title":"It\u2019s not what you know, it\u2019s who you know: Older siblings facilitate imitation during infancy","volume":"11","author":"Barr","year":"2003","journal-title":"International Journal of Early Years Education"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cppeds.2016.12.001","article-title":"Sleep regulation, physiology and development, sleep duration and patterns, and sleep hygiene in infants, toddlers, and preschool-age children","volume":"47","author":"Bathory","year":"2017","journal-title":"Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"157","article-title":"Effects of collaborative revision on children\u2019s ability to write understandable narrative texts","volume":"Vol. 13","author":"Rijlaarsdam","year":"2004","journal-title":"Studies in writing. 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