{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T09:09:47Z","timestamp":1788772187224,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788739200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"2026 Guangzhou Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Project","award":["2026GZQN69"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026GZQN69"]}]},{"name":"2026 Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, South China University of Technology","award":["QNMS2610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QNMS2610"]}]},{"award":["QNMS2610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QNMS2610"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0530pts50","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Student Research Program of South China University of Technology","award":["X202610561714"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["X202610561714"]}]},{"award":["X202610561714"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["X202610561714"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0530pts50","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Digital Pedagogical Agents (DPAs) are virtual teaching entities created in the digital learning environment that have characteristics such as emotion and socialization. According to the basis of Social Agency Theory (SAT), a three-level random-effects meta-analytic model is employed in this paper to study the general effect and boundary conditions of DPAs in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) environments systematically. Through searches across seven Chinese and English databases, 31 independent empirical studies were identified, yielding 112 effect sizes (2002\u20132026). Based on the three-level random-effects model, the effect of DPA on SLA outcomes is about 0.607 (Hedges\u2019 g = 0.607; 95% CI [0.45, 0.77]; p &lt; 0.001), and there is a relatively large between-study heterogeneity. According to the moderation analysis, the magnitude of the effect varies greatly with different kinds of study designs, cultural contexts and learner characteristics, and although there is a moderating effect by publication type, it is not statistically significant. Funnel plot inspection, Egger\u2019s test, and the trim-and-fill method all showed the presence of publication bias, yet the adjusted effect size remained robust (Hedges\u2019 g = 0.521). This study provides quantitative evidence for understanding the mechanisms of DPAs in SLA and offers practical implications for instructional design and technological development in intelligent language learning environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16091583","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T08:07:06Z","timestamp":1788768426000},"page":"1583","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Impact of Pedagogical Agents on Second Language Acquisition Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis Guided by Social Agency Theory"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0398-5428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuan","family":"Wen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, City University of Macau, Macao SAR, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1802-7300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jun","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Teacher Education, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6945-1822","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhixin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, City University of Macau, Macao SAR, China"},{"name":"School of Marxism, Jiangxi Institute of Fashion Technology, Nanchang 330201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3723-9039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuming","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physical Education, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2017.1284132","article-title":"Anthropomorphism\u2014Matters or not? On agent modality and its implications for teaching English idioms and design decisions","volume":"30","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computer Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2022.104483","article-title":"Robots in situated learning classrooms with immediate feedback mechanisms to improve students\u2019 learning performance","volume":"182","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2004.07.001","article-title":"Fostering social agency in multimedia learning: Examining the impact of an animated agent\u2019s voice","volume":"30","author":"Atkinson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Contemporary Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"128","article-title":"On the comparison of the effects of conventional and agent-based multimedia instruction on the learning of English speech acts among Iranian EFL learners","volume":"22","year":"2021","journal-title":"Computer-Assisted Language Learning Electronic Journal"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"37","article-title":"The role of cultural background in the personalization principle: Five experiments with Czech learners","volume":"112","author":"Brom","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlotto, T., and Jaques, P. A. (, January July). An animated pedagogical agent on a CALL system lecturing about the English present perfect tense to Brazilian students. 2016 IEEE 16th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), Austin, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALT.2016.15"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09587-1","article-title":"Effectiveness of multimedia pedagogical agents predicted by diverse theories: A meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Wong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11592","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2443534","article-title":"Effects of augmented reality with pedagogical agent on EFL primary students\u2019 vocabulary acquisition, motivation, and technology perceptions","volume":"41","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"International Journal of Human\u2013Computer Interaction"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331251400540","article-title":"Do generative AI-powered pedagogical agents improve learners\u2019 academic performance effectively? Evidence from meta-analysis","volume":"64","author":"Cheng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032968","article-title":"Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: A structural equation modeling approach","volume":"19","author":"Cheung","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychological Methods"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.2190\/A064-U776-4208-N145","article-title":"Cognitive and affective benefits of an animated pedagogical agent for learning English as a second language","volume":"34","author":"Choi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Chung, L.-Y. (, January October). Using avatars to enhance active learning: Integration of virtual reality tools into college English curriculum. 16th North-East Asia Symposium on Nano, Information Technology and Reliability, Macao, China."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"113","article-title":"Chatbot-human interaction and its effects on EFL students\u2019 L2 speaking performance and anxiety","volume":"16","year":"2022","journal-title":"Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language)"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-024-09855-4","article-title":"Effects of artificial intelligence-powered virtual agents on learning outcomes in computer-based simulations: A meta-analysis","volume":"36","author":"Dai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2022.107637","article-title":"Do lonely people seek robot companionship? A comparative examination of the Loneliness\u2014Robot anthropomorphism link in the United States and China","volume":"141","author":"Dang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"459","article-title":"Effects of pedagogical agent gestures on social acceptance and learning: Virtual real relationships in an elementary foreign language classroom","volume":"28","author":"Davis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Interactive Learning Research"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Drobisz, J. (2017). The effects of arousal presented by a pedagogical agent on English language learners\u2019 situational interest, cognitive load, and reading comprehension. [Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida]. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.usf.edu\/etd\/6695."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x","article-title":"Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis","volume":"56","author":"Duval","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.system.2024.103254","article-title":"Improving EFL learners\u2019 speaking skills and willingness to communicate via artificial intelligence-mediated interactions","volume":"121","author":"Fathi","year":"2024","journal-title":"System"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"101729","article-title":"How to guide learners\u2019 processing of multimedia lessons with pedagogical agents","volume":"84","author":"Fiorella","year":"2022","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Flemban, F. Y. (2018). Animated pedagogical agent\u2019s roles and English learners\u2019 prior knowledge: The influence on cognitive load, motivation, and vocabulary acquisition. [Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida]. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.usf.edu\/etd\/7620."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2013.04.126","article-title":"Effect of intelligent tutoring systems in language learning\u2014Findings of a research evaluation report","volume":"76","author":"Istrate","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2012.733712","article-title":"A courseware to script animated pedagogical agents in instructional material for elementary students in English education","volume":"27","author":"Hong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Computer Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Chen, H., and Hu, C. (2025). L2 growth mindset in AI-mediated language learning: Effects of perceived usability and presence of generative AI chatbots. Frontiers in Psychology, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1700117"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3271","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-024-10396-4","article-title":"Effects of an adaptive computer agent-based digital game on EFL students\u2019 English learning outcomes","volume":"72","author":"Hwang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23329","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12725-9","article-title":"Can learners benefit from chatbots instead of humans? A systematic review of human\u2013chatbot comparison research in language education","volume":"29","author":"Jeon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-015-0065-9","article-title":"Face-to-face interaction with pedagogical agents, twenty years later","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"2016","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, J., and Chung, D. (2025). Exploring the synergy of words and worlds in immersive learning. XR and metaverse, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-77975-6_6"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Ko, Y.-A. (2010). The effects of pedagogical agents on listening anxiety and listening comprehension in an English as a foreign language context. [Doctoral dissertation, Utah State University]."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Immersion in virtual reality for language learning","volume":"72","author":"Lan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adult and Second Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-018-9569-y","article-title":"Real body versus 3D avatar: The effects of different embodied learning types on EFL listening comprehension","volume":"66","author":"Lan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.2307\/2529310","article-title":"The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data","volume":"33","author":"Landis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1177\/00336882241268662","article-title":"EFL learner perceptions and engagement of a customized AI-led class","volume":"56","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"RELC Journal"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Wang, Z., Ding, L., Zhang, J., and Wang, G. (2025). Facts on the effects of pedagogical agents on learners\u2019 cognitive load: A meta-analysis of 24 studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1635465"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s13673-017-0089-2","article-title":"Exploring the affective, motivational and cognitive effects of pedagogical agent enthusiasm in a multimedia learning environment","volume":"7","author":"Liew","year":"2017","journal-title":"Human-Centric Computing and Information Sciences"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Gao, S., and Ji, X. (2023). Beyond borders: Exploring the impact of augmented reality on intercultural competence and L2 learning motivation in EFL learners. Frontiers in Psychology, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1234905"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, C.-T., Chen, Y.-J., Wu, T.-Y., and Lu, Y.-Y. (2026). An intelligent English-speaking training system using generative AI and speech recognition. Applied Sciences, 16, (1).","DOI":"10.3390\/app16010189"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayer, R. E. (2005). Principles of multimedia learning based on social cues: Personalization, voice, and image principles. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511816819.014"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Mayer, R. E. (2021). Multimedia learning, Cambridge University Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-007-9047-2","article-title":"Interactive multimodal learning environments","volume":"19","author":"Moreno","year":"2007","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Murano, P. (, January June). Effectiveness of mapping human-oriented information to feedback from a software interface. 24th International Conference on Information Technology Interfaces, Cavtat, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2021.03.001","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"134","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2024.100991","article-title":"Effects of GenAI-empowered interactive support on university EFL students\u2019 self-regulated strategy use and engagement in reading","volume":"65","author":"Pan","year":"2025","journal-title":"The Internet and Higher Education"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"93","article-title":"Effects of virtual reality-based English learning on Korean university students\u2019 speaking ability","volume":"25","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2020.1752476","article-title":"Talking head-based L2 pronunciation training: Impact on achievement emotions, cognitive load, and their relationships with learning performance","volume":"36","author":"Peng","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Human\u2013Computer Interaction"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-021-01246-3","article-title":"Meta-analysis with robust variance estimation: Expanding the range of working models","volume":"23","author":"Pustejovsky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prevention Science"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenthal-von der P\u00fctten, A. M., and Bergmann, K. (2020). Non-verbal enrichment in vocabulary learning with a virtual pedagogical agent. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.533839"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Traum, D., Swartout, W., Khooshabeh, P., Kopp, S., Scherer, S., and Leuski, A. (2016). Robots or agents\u2014Neither helps you more or less during second language acquisition: Experimental study on the effects of embodiment and type of speech output on evaluation and alignment. Intelligent virtual agents: 16th international conference, IVA 2016, Springer."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J., and Borenstein, M. (2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470870168"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2190\/EC.49.1.a","article-title":"How effective are pedagogical agents for learning? A meta-analytic review","volume":"49","author":"Schroeder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"125","article-title":"Xuni xianshi jishu dui waiyu xuexi xiaoguo yingxiang de yuanfenxi [A meta-analysis of the effects of virtual reality technology on foreign language learning outcomes]","volume":"49","author":"Shen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Modern Foreign Languages"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steinhaeusser, S. C., Riedmann, A., Schaper, P., Guthmann, E., Pfister, J., Schmitt, K., Wild, T. C., and Lugrin, B. (2, January August). Second language learning through storytelling with a social robot\u2014An online case study. 2022 31st IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN), Napoli, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/RO-MAN53752.2022.9900628"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"830","article-title":"Eryu dongji ziwo xitong yu yuyan xide guanxi de yuanfenxi [A meta-analysis of the relationship between the L2 motivational self system and language acquisition]","volume":"43","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Modern Foreign Languages"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.64152\/10125\/73491","article-title":"Impact of mobile virtual reality on EFL learners\u2019 listening comprehension","volume":"26","author":"Tai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Language Learning & Technology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2022.2075013","article-title":"Effects of intelligent personal assistants on EFL learners\u2019 oral proficiency outside the classroom","volume":"37","author":"Tai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computer Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105112","article-title":"Improving elementary EFL speaking skills with generative AI chatbots: Exploring individual and paired interactions","volume":"220","author":"Tai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2020.1752735","article-title":"The impact of a virtual reality app on adolescent EFL learners\u2019 vocabulary learning","volume":"35","author":"Tai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Computer Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"46","article-title":"Renwu shi hudong yu eryu yufa xide guanxi de yuanfenxi yanjiu [A meta-analysis of the relationship between task-based interaction and L2 grammar acquisition]","volume":"42","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Beijing International Studies University"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1080\/09523987.2011.632280","article-title":"Learning Spanish with Laura: The effects of a pedagogical agent","volume":"48","author":"Theodoridou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Educational Media International"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-012-0261-6","article-title":"Three-level Meta-analysis of the Dependent Effect Size","volume":"45","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behaviour Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-014-0527-2","article-title":"Meta-analysis of multiple outcomes: A multilevel approach","volume":"47","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v036.i03","article-title":"Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package","volume":"36","author":"Viechtbauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.system.2024.103533","article-title":"The impact of different conversational generative AI chatbots on EFL learners: An analysis of willingness to communicate, foreign language speaking anxiety, and self-perceived communicative competence","volume":"127","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"System"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"107226","article-title":"How do educational agents influence learners\u2019 emotions and learning outcomes? A meta-analysis of 39 experimental studies","volume":"131","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, L. (2023). Artificial intelligence in language instruction: Impact on English learning achievement, L2 motivation, and self-regulated learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1261955"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"100117","article-title":"Instructional design and learning outcomes of intelligent computer assisted language learning: Systematic review in the field","volume":"4","author":"Weng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.system.2024.103498","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in L2 learning: A Meta-analysis of contextual, instructional and social-emotional moderators","volume":"126","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"System"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1784","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13615","article-title":"Parent-led vs. AI-guided dialogic reading: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial in children\u2019s e-book context","volume":"56","author":"Xiao","year":"2025","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2333-8504.2009.tb02170.x","article-title":"An exploratory study into interlanguage pragmatics of requests: A game of persuasion","volume":"2009","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"ETS Research Report Series"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1038\/s41539-025-00381-8","article-title":"Social interaction in learning second language: How to present this in virtual reality","volume":"10","author":"Zappa","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Science of Learning"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5509","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2023.2219702","article-title":"Effects of a self-regulated-based gamified virtual reality system on students\u2019 English learning performance and affection","volume":"32","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1583\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T08:34:52Z","timestamp":1788770092000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1583"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16091583"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16091583","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]]}}}