{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T10:03:47Z","timestamp":1789985027824,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012325","name":"National Social Science Foundation of China Education Project \u201cDigital Empowerment for the Localized Growth of Rural Teachers in Western China\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CHA230314"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CHA230314"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012325","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rural teachers often face work overload arising from demanding teaching responsibilities and extensive non-teaching duties, which may be closely associated with their subjective well-being. However, prior research has largely adopted a single-effect perspective, paying insufficient attention to the potentially competing mechanisms linking work overload to well-being. Drawing on cognitive appraisal theory of stress, this study develops a moderated parallel mediation model to examine the dual pathways through which work overload is associated with rural teachers\u2019 subjective well-being. Survey data were collected from 639 rural primary and secondary school teachers across 12 provincial-level regions in western China. The proposed model was tested using confirmatory factor analysis, hierarchical regression, and bootstrapping. The results indicate that work overload is positively associated with subjective well-being through job crafting, but negatively associated with subjective well-being through emotional exhaustion. Self-efficacy strengthens the positive association between work overload and job crafting while weakening the positive relationship between work overload and emotional exhaustion. Moreover, self-efficacy moderates both indirect associations, amplifying the beneficial pathway through job crafting and attenuating the detrimental pathway through emotional exhaustion. These findings reveal two distinct mechanisms linking work overload to rural teachers\u2019 subjective well-being and extend research on occupational stress by identifying self-efficacy as an important boundary condition. The study also provides practical implications for educational authorities seeking to optimize workload arrangements and develop targeted support and incentive mechanisms for rural teachers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16091684","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T09:01:38Z","timestamp":1789981298000},"page":"1684","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["When Work Overload Cuts Both Ways: Job Crafting, Emotional Exhaustion, and the Role of Self-Efficacy in Rural Teachers\u2019 Subjective Well-Being"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4119-7455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zicheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Sizhen","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Huiting","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Administration, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1330-5317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tianfeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Humanities, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9641","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11013-8","article-title":"The impact of work-life balance and work overload on teacher\u2019s organizational commitment: Do job engagement and perceived organizational support matter","volume":"27","author":"Abdulaziz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1080\/09575146.2023.2237207","article-title":"Job stress and teacher burnout in preschools\u2014Preliminary assessment of the buffer effect of job resources in the stressor-strain model in a lower-middle-income country","volume":"44","author":"Aboagye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Early Years"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"2544","article-title":"Impacts of workload on teachers\u2019 well-being: A systematic literature review","volume":"13","author":"Mahat","year":"2024","journal-title":"TEM Journal"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1111\/joms.13115","article-title":"Navigating environmental threats to new ventures: A regulatory fit approach to bricolage","volume":"62","author":"Adomako","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Management Studies"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arbia, G., Carbone, A., Stanzione, I., and Szpunar, G. (2023). The work-related stress and well-being of teachers\u2014An exploratory study within primary schools in Italy. Education Sciences, 13, (5).","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci13050505"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.99.2.274","article-title":"Job resources boost work engagement, particularly when job demands are high","volume":"99","author":"Bakker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1177\/0018726712453471","article-title":"Proactive personality and job performance: The role of job crafting and work engagement","volume":"65","author":"Bakker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Human Relations"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.2.191","article-title":"Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change","volume":"84","author":"Bandura","year":"1977","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benevene, P., De Stasio, S., and Fiorilli, C. (2020). Editorial: Well-being of school teachers in their work environment. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01239"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1002\/job.645","article-title":"Perceiving and responding to challenges in job crafting at different ranks: When proactivity requires adaptivity","volume":"31","author":"Berg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brockbank, R. B., and Feldon, D. F. (2024). Cognitive reappraisal: The bridge between cognitive load and emotion. Education Sciences, 14, (8).","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci14080870"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/09585192.2022.2078991","article-title":"An integrative review on job burnout among teachers in China: Implications for human resource management","volume":"34","author":"Cheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"The International Journal of Human Resource Management"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/02678370410001734322","article-title":"\u2018Management Standards\u2019 work-related stress in the UK: Practical development","volume":"18","author":"Cousins","year":"2004","journal-title":"Work & Stress"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.5093\/jwop2024a3","article-title":"Mediating and moderating variables in the relationship between emotional demands and teachers\u2019 emotional exhaustion","volume":"40","author":"Cuadrado","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1080\/10615806.2015.1061123","article-title":"Work overload, burnout, and psychological ill-health symptoms: A three-wave mediation model of the employee health impairment process","volume":"29","author":"Pienaar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anxiety, Stress, & Coping"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327965PLI1104_01","article-title":"The \u201cWhat\u201d and \u201cWhy\u201d of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior","volume":"11","author":"Deci","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychological Inquiry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.95.3.542","article-title":"Subjective well-being","volume":"95","author":"Diener","year":"1984","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.20448\/jeelr.v11i2.5641","article-title":"Workload doesn\u2019t mean exhaustion: Antecedents of teacher burnout","volume":"11","author":"Dung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Education and E-Learning Research"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/1082-989X.12.1.1","article-title":"Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis","volume":"12","author":"Edwards","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychological Methods"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3840","DOI":"10.1002\/nop2.1642","article-title":"Challenge, threat, coping potential: How primary and secondary appraisals of job demands predict nurses\u2019 affective states during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"10","author":"Sischka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nursing Open"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.50.5.992","article-title":"Dynamics of a stressful encounter: Cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes","volume":"50","author":"Folkman","year":"1986","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/0097840X.1976.9936068","article-title":"Underload and overload in working life: Outline of a multidisciplinary approach","volume":"2","author":"Frankenhaeuser","year":"1976","journal-title":"Journal of Human Stress"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1177\/0149206307308911","article-title":"Antecedents of day-level proactive behavior: A look at job stressors and positive affect during the workday","volume":"35","author":"Fritz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Management"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gai, G., Zhu, X., and Yang, F. (2026). How does AI use foster teachers\u2019 innovative work behavior? The sequential roles of work meaningfulness and creative self-efficacy. Education and Information Technologies, 1\u201322.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-026-14047-4"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-6570.2008.00113.x","article-title":"A meta-analysis of work demand stressors and job performance: Examining main and moderating effects","volume":"61","author":"Gilboa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Personnel Psychology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2012.02.043","article-title":"Do burnout and work engagement predict depressive symptoms and life satisfaction? A three-wave seven-year prospective study","volume":"141","author":"Hakanen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Affective Disorders"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1080\/00131881.2021.1980416","article-title":"Teacher wellbeing and resilience: Towards an integrative model","volume":"63","author":"Hascher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Research"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.44.3.513","article-title":"Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress","volume":"44","author":"Hobfoll","year":"1989","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3315","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.3315","article-title":"How does day-to-day stress appraisal relate to coping among office workers in academia? An ecological momentary assessment study","volume":"40","author":"Hulin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stress and Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ingusci, E., Signore, F., Giancaspro, M. L., Manuti, A., Molino, M., Russo, V., Zito, M., and Cortese, C. G. (2021). Workload, techno overload, and behavioral stress during COVID-19 emergency: The role of job crafting in remote workers. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.655148"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1108\/09596111311322952","article-title":"The effects of work overload and work-family conflict on job embeddedness and job performance: The mediation of emotional exhaustion","volume":"25","author":"Karatepe","year":"2013","journal-title":"International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2013.08.003","article-title":"Does work engagement mediate the effects of challenge stressors on job outcomes? Evidence from the hotel industry","volume":"36","author":"Karatepe","year":"2014","journal-title":"International Journal of Hospitality Management"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/02619768.2021.1971647","article-title":"Challenge-appraisal profiles of beginning teachers and inter-profile differences in self-efficacy, self-regulation, and emotions","volume":"47","year":"2024","journal-title":"European Journal of Teacher Education"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1080\/1034912X.2020.1808949","article-title":"The effect of self-efficacy and role understanding on teachers\u2019 emotional exhaustion and work engagement in inclusive education in Macao (SAR)","volume":"69","author":"Kuok","year":"2022","journal-title":"International Journal of Disability, Development and Education"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lazarus, R. S., and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping, Springer Publishing Company."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.5465\/amj.2009.47084651","article-title":"Work process and quality of care in early childhood education: The role of job crafting","volume":"52","author":"Leana","year":"2009","journal-title":"Academy of Management Journal"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1002\/job.4030090402","article-title":"The impact of interpersonal environment on burnout and organizational commitment","volume":"9","author":"Leiter","year":"1988","journal-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"4111","article-title":"Teacher\u2019s workload in relation to burnout and work performance","volume":"5","author":"Magtalas","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1177\/0734282917707142","article-title":"Assessing teacher wellness: Confirmatory factor analysis and measurement invariance of the teacher subjective wellbeing questionnaire","volume":"36","author":"Mankin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1002\/job.4030020205","article-title":"The measurement of experienced burnout","volume":"2","author":"Maslach","year":"1981","journal-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.52.1.397","article-title":"Job burnout","volume":"52","author":"Maslach","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1002\/job.1855","article-title":"A longitudinal examination of role overload and work\u2013family conflict: The mediating role of interdomain transitions","volume":"35","author":"Matthews","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1080\/08959285.2017.1373115","article-title":"Translating self-efficacy in job performance over time: The role of job crafting","volume":"30","author":"Miraglia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Human Performance"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"OECD (2020). TALIS 2018 results (Volume II): Teachers and school leaders as valued professionals, OECD Publishing."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortan, F., Simut, C., and Simut, R. (2021). Self-efficacy, job satisfaction and teacher well-being in the K-12 educational system. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, (23).","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182312763"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1006\/jvbe.1996.0025","article-title":"Work and family variables, entrepreneurial career success, and psychological well-being","volume":"48","author":"Parasuraman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Vocational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1177\/0149206308321554","article-title":"Taking stock: Integrating and differentiating multiple proactive behaviors","volume":"36","author":"Parker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Management"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pei, S., Wang, S., Jiang, R., Guo, J., and Ni, J. (2024). How work stress influence turnover intention among Chinese local undergraduate university teachers: The mediating effect of job burnout and the moderating effect of self-efficacy. Frontiers in Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1308486"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1002\/job.1783","article-title":"Crafting a job on a daily basis: Contextual correlates and the link to work engagement","volume":"33","author":"Petrou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879","article-title":"Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies","volume":"88","author":"Podsakoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1037\/spq0000112","article-title":"Assessing teachers\u2019 positive psychological functioning at work: Development and validation of the teacher subjective wellbeing questionnaire","volume":"30","author":"Renshaw","year":"2015","journal-title":"School Psychology Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1080\/10696679.1997.11501773","article-title":"Salespeople and stress: The moderating role of locus of control on work stressors and felt stress","volume":"5","author":"Roberts","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roczniewska, M., Rogala, A., Puchalska-Kaminska, M., Cie\u015blak, R., and Retowski, S. (2020). I believe I can craft! Introducing job crafting self-efficacy scale (JCSES). PLoS ONE, 15, (8).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0237250"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.31577\/sp.2020.02.797","article-title":"Job crafting, work engagement, burnout: Mediating role of self-efficacy","volume":"62","year":"2020","journal-title":"Studia Psychologica"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2022.103843","article-title":"Work until you drop: Effects of work overload, prolonging working hours, and autonomy need satisfaction on exhaustion in teachers","volume":"118","author":"Sandmeier","year":"2022","journal-title":"Teaching and Teacher Education"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Schwarzer, R., and Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. Measures in health psychology: A user\u2019s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs, NFER-Nelson. Available online: https:\/\/www.religiousforums.com\/data\/attachment-files\/2014\/12\/22334_285ebbd019ec89856493442b1b6f9154.pdf."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2011.03.003","article-title":"Challenge or threat? Cardiovascular indexes of resilience and vulnerability to potential stress in humans","volume":"35","author":"Seery","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.99.3.611","article-title":"Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout","volume":"99","author":"Skaalvik","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1007\/s11218-018-9464-8","article-title":"Job demands and job resources as predictors of teacher motivation and well-being","volume":"21","author":"Skaalvik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Social Psychology of Education"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1111\/joop.12094","article-title":"Challenge versus hindrance job demands and well-being: A diary study on the moderating role of job resources","volume":"88","author":"Bakker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032141","article-title":"The impact of job crafting on job demands, job resources, and well-being","volume":"18","author":"Tims","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Occupational Health Psychology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1108\/JMP-05-2012-0148","article-title":"Daily job crafting and the self-efficacy\u2014Performance relationship","volume":"29","author":"Tims","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Managerial Psychology"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"UNESCO & International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030 (2023). The teachers we need for the education we want: The global imperative to reverse the teacher shortage, UNESCO. Available online: https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000387001.locale=en."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Gao, Y., Wang, Q., and Zhang, P. (2024). Relationships between self-efficacy and teachers\u2019 well-being in middle school English teachers: The mediating role of teaching satisfaction and resilience. Behavioral Sciences, 14, (8).","DOI":"10.3390\/bs14080629"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Gu, L., Jin, M., Xia, Q., Yue, H., and Teng, W. (2025). The relationship between preschool teachers\u2019 effort-reward imbalance and occupational well-being in Chinese rural areas: A moderated mediation model. BMC Psychology, 13, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-025-03081-5"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvb.2011.02.001","article-title":"Extending the challenge-hindrance model of occupational stress: The role of appraisal","volume":"79","author":"Webster","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Vocational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, C., and Ye, J.-H. (2022). The impacts of work-life balance on the emotional exhaustion and well-being of college teachers in China. Healthcare, 10, (11).","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare10112234"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ashkanasy, N. M., Zerbe, W. J., and H\u00e4rtel, C. E. J. (2005). Reflections on affective events theory. The effect of affect in organizational settings, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1746-9791(2005)1"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wingerden, J. V., and Poell, R. F. (2019). Meaningful work and resilience among teachers: The mediating role of work engagement and job crafting. PLoS ONE, 14, (9), (Erratum in 2022, PLoS ONE, 17(5), e0269347).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0269347"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.2307\/259118","article-title":"Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active crafters of their work","volume":"26","author":"Wrzesniewski","year":"2001","journal-title":"The Academy of Management Review"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, L., Guo, J., Zheng, L., and Zhang, Q. (2023). Teacher well-being in Chinese universities: Examining the relationship between challenge\u2014Hindrance stressors, job satisfaction, and teaching engagement. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20, (2).","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021523"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psicoe.2024.02.002","article-title":"Noticing the unnoticed: Teacher self-efficacy as a mediator between school context and teacher burnout in developing regions","volume":"29","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Revista de Psicodid\u00e1ctica (English Edition)"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Huang, X., and Wang, C. (2025). Exploring job crafting behaviors among primary and secondary school teachers in China: A descriptive analysis. Frontiers in Education, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2025.1588036"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1080\/10611932.2018.1433410","article-title":"Rural teacher identity and influencing factors in western China","volume":"51","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chinese Education & Society"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s10643-023-01455-1","article-title":"Chinese kindergarten teachers\u2019 proactive agency in job crafting: A multiple case study in Shanghai","volume":"52","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Early Childhood Education Journal"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, X., Huang, H., and Yu, Q. (2024). The associations among gratitude, job crafting, teacher-student relationships, and teacher psychological well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1329782"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-024-02812-0","article-title":"The double-edged sword effects of perceived algorithmic control on platform workers\u2019 service performance","volume":"11","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9787","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13207-8","article-title":"The impact of time poverty on teachers\u2019 subjective well-being in the context of digital teaching: The mediating role of emotional exhaustion and the moderating role of social support","volume":"30","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1684\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T09:36:43Z","timestamp":1789983403000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1684"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16091684"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16091684","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]}}}