{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T07:27:40Z","timestamp":1780471660949,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,26]],"date-time":"2022-07-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658793600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UCL-PKU Strategic Partner Funding","award":["556103.179601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["556103.179601"]}]},{"name":"UCL-PKU Strategic Partner Funding","award":["572340.184864"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["572340.184864"]}]},{"name":"ICE Research and Development Enabling Fund","award":["556103.179601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["556103.179601"]}]},{"name":"ICE Research and Development Enabling Fund","award":["572340.184864"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["572340.184864"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The climate change issue has been striking and bringing pressure on all countries and industries. The responsibility of the Architecture, Engineering, Construction and Facility Management (AEC\/FM) industry is heavy because it accounts for over one-third of global energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, the development of digital technology brings the opportunity to mitigate environmental issues. Therefore, this study intended to examine the state-of-the-art of digital development and transformation in the AEC\/FM industry by collecting and reviewing the developed digital carbon footprint analysis tools in infrastructure, building, and city scopes. Specifically, this study (1) generated a review methodology for carbon footprint analysis results; (2) demonstrated the review results from the infrastructure, building, and city scopes, analysed and compared the results crossing the scopes from four aspects: carbon footprint analysis strategy, standards and protocols, rating systems, and general development level of digital tools; and (3) discussed the potential directions in the industry to address the environmental issues. This study indicated that the digitalisation level regarding carbon-related areas is still at an early stage, and efforts should be taken both academically and practically to drive the digital development confronting the harsh climate change issue.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12081097","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,26]],"date-time":"2022-07-26T22:03:42Z","timestamp":1658873022000},"page":"1097","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Digital Tools for Revealing and Reducing Carbon Footprint in Infrastructure, Building, and City Scopes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2931-8579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiayi","family":"Yan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiuchen","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junqing","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban Planning and Design, Shenzhen Graduate School, Peking University, Shenzhen 518055, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Long","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingke","family":"Hong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban Planning and Design, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim","family":"Broyd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"HM Government (2022, May 04). Net Zero Strategy: Build Back Greener, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/1033990\/net-zero-strategy-beis.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"The White House (2022, May 04). The Long-Term Strategy of the United States: Pathways to Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050, Available online: https:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/US-Long-Term-Strategy.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuwahara, R., Kim, H., and Sato, H. (2022). Evaluation of Zero-Energy Building and Use of Renewable Energy in Renovated Buildings: A Case Study in Japan. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12050561"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Saheb, Y. (2022, May 04). COP26: Sufficiency Should Be First. Buildings and Cities. Available online: https:\/\/www.buildingsandcities.org\/insights\/commentaries\/cop26-sufficiency.html#:~:text=Avoiding%20the%20climate%20emergency%20requires,today\u2019s%20environmental%20and%20societal%20challenges."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11739","DOI":"10.1021\/es402618m","article-title":"Carbon Emissions of Infrastructure Development","volume":"47","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"US EPA (2022, May 04). Sector Performance Report, Available online: https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/sectors\/web\/pdf\/introbw.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1698","article-title":"Stock dynamics and emission pathways of the global aluminium cycle","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsbe.2014.11.004","article-title":"Carbon footprint and embodied energy consumption assessment of building construction works in Western Australia","volume":"3","author":"Biswas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"116","article-title":"Carbon Footprint Assessment of a Residential Development Project","volume":"2","author":"Heinonen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Collings, D. (2021). The Carbon Footprint of Bridges. Struct. Eng. Int., 1\u20136."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management\u2013Life Cycle 596 Assessment\u2013Principles and Framework (Standard No. ISO 14040:2006). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/37456.html."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2014.03.028","article-title":"The convergence of life cycle assessment and nearly zero-energy buildings: The case of Germany","volume":"76","author":"Jensch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2016). Carbon Management in Infrastructure (Standard No. PAS 2080:2016). Available online: https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/en-GB\/our-services\/product-certification\/product-certification-schemes\/pas-2080-carbon-management-in-infrastructure-verification\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.03.171","article-title":"The risk of burden shifting from embodied carbon calculation tools for the infrastructure sector","volume":"223","author":"Jackson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"HM Treasury (2022, May 25). Infrastructure Carbon Review, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/260710\/infrastructure_carbon_review_251113.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1139\/cjce-2020-0284","article-title":"Exploring the current challenges and emerging approaches in whole building life cycle assessment","volume":"49","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5545","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b07071","article-title":"Review on City-Level Carbon Accounting","volume":"53","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.07.012","article-title":"The carbon footprint of buildings: A review of methodologies and applications","volume":"94","author":"Fenner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cstp.2021.12.012","article-title":"An integrated empirical analysis of UK rail industry\u2019s carbon assessment: An industry perspective","volume":"10","author":"Akponeware","year":"2021","journal-title":"Case Stud. Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2139","DOI":"10.1039\/D1EE03923G","article-title":"Accelerating net zero from the perspective of optimizing a carbon capture and utilization system","volume":"15","author":"Hao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spc.2018.12.001","article-title":"The state of carbon footprint calculators: An evaluation of calculator design and user interaction features","volume":"18","author":"Mulrow","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sustain. Prod. Consum."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"RSSB (2022, May 04). Rail Carbon Tool. Available online: https:\/\/www.rssb.co.uk\/sustainability\/rail-carbon-tool."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"TRL (2022, May 04). asPECT. Available online: https:\/\/trl.co.uk\/permanent-landing-pages\/asphalt-pavement-embodied-carbon-tool-aspect\/."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Wayman, M., Schiavi-Mellor, I., and Cordell, B. (2022, May 04). Protocol for the Calculation of Whole Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Generated by Asphalt: Part of the Asphalt Pavement Embodied Carbon Tool (asPECT). Available online: https:\/\/www.trl.co.uk\/Uploads\/TRL\/Documents\/PPR575.pdf."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"One Click LCA (2022, May 04). Infrastructure LCA. Available online: https:\/\/www.oneclicklca.com\/construction\/infrastructure-life-cycle-assessment\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2022, May 04). National Highways, National Highways Carbon Tool Guidance, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/899360\/Highways_England_Carbon_Tool_Guidance_Document_v2.3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"232","article-title":"Carbon calculator design tool for bridges","volume":"168","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000598","article-title":"Carbon Footprint Estimation Tool for Transportation Construction Projects","volume":"139","author":"Melanta","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Constr. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1080\/17583004.2016.1275815","article-title":"GHG emission accounting and mitigation strategies to reduce the carbon footprint in conventional port activities\u2014A case of the Port of Chennai","volume":"8","author":"Misra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carbon Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jairtraman.2014.03.001","article-title":"A transport carbon footprint methodology to assess airport carbon emissions","volume":"37","author":"Postorino","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Air Transp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sihabuddin, S., and Ariaratnam, S.T. (2009, January 5\u20137). Quantification of Carbon Footprint on Underground Utility Projects. Proceedings of the Construction Research Congress 2009: Building a Sustainable Future, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/41020(339)63"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2015.01.060","article-title":"Carbon footprint accounting in support of city water supply infrastructure siting decision making: A case study in Ningbo, China","volume":"103","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.10.226","article-title":"Strategy for reducing carbon dioxide emissions from maintenance and rehabilitation of highway pavement","volume":"209","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"ASMI (2022, May 04). Athena LCA Software Tools Have Been Helping North American Sustainable Designers Since 2002. Available online: http:\/\/www.athenasmi.org\/our-software-data\/overview\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"eTool (2022, May 04). About eToolLCD. Available online: https:\/\/etoolglobal.com\/about-etoollcd\/."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2021, December 17). WoodWorks Design a Wood Building? Case Study: Inspiration through Innovation at UMass Amherst, an Exposed Mass Timber Structure is a Teaching Tool. Available online: http:\/\/www.woodworks.org."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"StoneSpecialist (2022, May 04). Carbon Calculator. Available online: https:\/\/stonespecialist.com\/."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"ThorntonTomasetti (2022, May 04). Embodied Carbon and Energy Efficiency Tool. Available online: http:\/\/core.thorntontomasetti.com\/embodied-carbon-efficiency-tool\/."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sol\u00eds-Guzm\u00e1n, J., Rivero-Camacho, C., Alba-Rodr\u00edguez, D., and Mart\u00ednez-Rocamora, A. (2018). Carbon Footprint Estimation Tool for Residential Buildings for Non-Specialized Users: OERCO2 Project. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10051359"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"BuildingTransparency (2022, May 04). EC3 Resources. Available online: https:\/\/www.buildingtransparency.org\/ec3-resources\/."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"OneClickLCA (2022, May 04). Get Reliable Whole Building Life-Cycle Assessments, Instantly. Available online: https:\/\/www.oneclicklca.com\/construction\/life-cycle-assessment-software\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Tally (2022, May 04). Know Your Impact. Available online: https:\/\/choosetally.com\/."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"10025457864","article-title":"Three tier client\/server architecture: Achieving scalability, performance and efficiency in client server applications","volume":"10","author":"Eckerson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Open Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"BRE (2022, May 04). IMPACT. Available online: https:\/\/bregroup.com\/products\/impact\/features\/?cn-reloaded=1&cn-reloaded=1."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"E2CO2Cero (2022, May 04). Qu\u00e9 es E2CO2Cero?. Available online: http:\/\/online.e2co2cero.com\/."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Wood, E. (2022, May 04). The Structural Carbon Tool Version 2. Available online: https:\/\/www.istructe.org\/resources\/guidance\/the-structural-carbon-tool\/."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"BuildCarbonNeutral (2022, May 04). Estimate the Embodied CO2 of a Whole Construction Project. Available online: http:\/\/www.buildcarbonneutral.org\/."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, C.-M., Chen, J.-Y., Pan, C.-A., and Jeng, T. (2015, January 20\u201322). A BIM Tool for Carbon Footprint Assessment of Building Design. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference of the Association for Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, Hong Kong SAR, China.","DOI":"10.52842\/conf.caadria.2015.447"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"CleanMetrics (2022, May 04). BuildingScope. Available online: https:\/\/www.cleanmetrics.com\/html\/buildingscope.htm."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ammouri, A.H., Srour, I., and Hamade, R. (2011). Carbon Footprint Calculator for Construction Projects (CFCCP). Advances in Sustainable Manufacturing, Springer.","DOI":"10.1115\/IMECE2011-63366"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"EnvironmentAgency (2022, May 04). Carbon Planning Tool. 2016 [15 December 2021], Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/571707\/LIT_7067.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2017.06.005","article-title":"Assessing the urban carbon footprint: An overview","volume":"66","author":"Lombardi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Impact Assess. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2014). Specification for the Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions of a City. Direct Plus Supply Chain and Consumption-Based Methodologies (Standard No. PAS 2070:2013+A1:2014). Available online: https:\/\/cdn.locomotive.works\/sites\/5ab410c8a2f42204838f797e\/content_entry5ae2f905a2f4220ae645f026\/5af8367114ad660b6525395a\/files\/London_-_PAS2070_Methodology.pdf?1615815345."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (2022, May 04). ICLEI\u2014Local Governments for Sustainability, World Resources Institute (WRI). The Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC). Available online: https:\/\/www.c40knowledgehub.org\/s\/article\/The-Global-Protocol-for-Community-Scale-Greenhouse-Gas-Emission-Inventories-GPC?language=en_US."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.10.163","article-title":"Implementing city-level carbon accounting: A comparison between Madrid and London","volume":"172","author":"Andrade","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.06.072","article-title":"Challenges in developing an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions of Chinese cities: A case study of Beijing","volume":"161","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1111\/jiec.12346","article-title":"The Concept of City Carbon Maps: A Case Study of Melbourne, Australia","volume":"20","author":"Wiedmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"i-Tree (2022, May 04). Welcome to the i-Tree Planting Calculator! 2021 [15 December 2021]. Available online: https:\/\/planting.itreetools.org\/."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Climatepositivedesign (2022, May 04). Design for Our Future. Available online: https:\/\/climatepositivedesign.com\/."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"iPoint (2022, May 04). Umberto. Available online: https:\/\/www.ifu.com\/umberto\/."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"CarbonStop (2022, May 04). Carbon Management Software. Available online: http:\/\/en.carbonstop.net\/."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Network Rail (2019). Capital Carbon, Network Rail. Available online: https:\/\/safety.networkrail.co.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/05\/capital-carbon-ESD07-v.11.pdf."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2015.06.008","article-title":"Life cycle energy (LCEA) and carbon dioxide emissions (LCCO2A) assessment of two residential buildings in Gaziantep, Turkey","volume":"102","author":"Atmaca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ormazabal, M., Jaca, C., and Puga-Leal, R. (2014, January 25\u201327). Analysis and Comparison of Life Cycle Assessment and Carbon Footprint Software. Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Management Science and Engineering Management, Lisbon, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-55122-2_131"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2973","DOI":"10.1002\/bse.2551","article-title":"Addressing the challenges of integrating carbon calculation tools in the construction industry","volume":"29","author":"Jackson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bus. Strat. Environ."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2012). Assessment of Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Horticultural Products-Supplementary Requirements for the Cradle to Gate Stages of GHG Assessments of Horticultural Products Undertaken in Accordance with PAS 2050 (Standard No. PAS 2050-2:2012). Available online: https:\/\/shop.bsigroup.com\/products\/assessment-of-life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-horticultural-products-supplementary-requirements-for-the-cradle-to-gate-stages-of-ghg-assessments-of-horticultural-products-undertaken-in-accordance-with-pas-2050\/standard."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2014). Specification for the Demonstration of Carbon Neutrality (Standard No. PAS 2060:2014). Available online: https:\/\/shop.bsigroup.com\/products\/specification-for-the-demonstration-of-carbon-neutrality-1\/standard."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Requirements and Guidelines (Standard No. ISO 14044:2006). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/38498.html."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2018). Greenhouse Gases-Carbon Footprint of Products-Requirements and Guidelines for Quantification (Standard No. ISO 14067:2018). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/71206.html."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Labels and Declarations-Type III Environmental Declarations-Principles and Procedures (Standard No. ISO 14025:2006). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/38131.html."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2011). Sustainability in Building Construction\u2014Sustainability Indicators\u2014Part 1: Framework for the Development of Indicators and a Core Set of Indicators for Buildings (Standard No. ISO 21929-1:2011). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/46599.html."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2017). Sustainability in Buildings and Civil Engineering Works-Core Rules for Environmental Product Declarations of Construction Products and Services (Standard No. ISO 21930:2017). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/61694.html."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2019). Sustainability in Buildings and civil Engineering Works-Framework for Methods of Assessment of the Environmental, Social and Economic Performance of Construction Works as a Basis for Sustainability Assessment-Part 2: Civil Engineering Works (Standard No. ISO 21931-2:2019). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/61696.html."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Sustainability of Construction Works. Assessment of Environmental Performance of Buildings. Calculation Method. The British Standards European Norm (Standard No. BS EN 15978:2011). Available online: https:\/\/knowledge.bsigroup.com\/products\/sustainability-of-construction-works-assessment-of-environmental-performance-of-buildings-calculation-method\/standard."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2008). Energy Performance of Buildings-Overall Energy Use and Definition of Energy Ratings (Standard No. EN 15603: 2008). Available online: https:\/\/shop.standards.ie\/en-ie\/standards\/en-15603-2008-326835_saig_cen_cen_752982\/."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2019). Sustainability of Construction Works-Environmental Product Declarations-Core Rules for the Product Category of Construction Products (Standard No. BS EN 15804:2012+A2:2019). Available online: https:\/\/knowledge.bsigroup.com\/products\/sustainability-of-construction-works-environmental-product-declarations-core-rules-for-the-product-category-of-construction-products-1\/standard\/details."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2021). Sustainability of Construction Works. Environmental Product Declarations. Communication Format Business-to-Business (Standard No. BS EN 15942:2021)."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"GHGProtocol (2019, December 14). We Set the Standards to Measure and Manage Emissions. Greenhouse Gas Protocol. Available online: https:\/\/ghgprotocol.org."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"BIPCC (2022, May 04). 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Available online: https:\/\/www.ipcc.ch\/report\/2006-ipcc-guidelines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories\/."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"USGBC (2022, May 04). LEED Rating System. Available online: https:\/\/www.usgbc.org\/leed."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"BRE (2021, December 27). What Is BREEAM?. 2022., Available online: https:\/\/www.breeam.com\/."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"BRE (2022, April 20). Achieve Sustainable Infrastructure with CEEQUAL. Available online: https:\/\/bregroup.com\/products\/ceequal\/."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Harvard University Graduate School of Design (2022, May 04). Envision\u00ae Rating System. Available online: https:\/\/research.gsd.harvard.edu\/zofnass\/menu\/envision\/."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"HQE (2022, May 04). Discover and Join HQE\u2122 2016. Available online: https:\/\/www.behqe.com\/."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"GBCA (2022, May 04). What Is Green Star?. Available online: https:\/\/new.gbca.org.au\/green-star\/exploring-green-star\/."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"GBIG (2022, May 04). Green Building Evaluation Label (China Three Star). Available online: http:\/\/www.gbig.org\/collections\/14970."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuusinen, K., Mikkonen, T., and Pakarinen, S. (2012, January 29\u201331). Agile User Experience Development in a Large Software Organization: Good Expertise but Limited Impact. Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Centred Software Engineering, Toulouse, France.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-34347-6_6"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2019.106568","article-title":"BIM-based life cycle assessment and life cycle costing of an office building in Western Europe","volume":"169","author":"Santos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Zhang, J., Guo, J., and Xiong, H. (2019). A Semantic and Social Approach for Real-Time Green Building Rating in BIM-Based Design. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11143973"},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"1","article-title":"Towards the systematic reporting of the energy and carbon footprints of machine learning","volume":"21","author":"Henderson","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K.-H., Chang, S.-F., Huang, W.-H., and Lu, I.-C. (2019). The Framework of the Integration of Carbon Footprint and Blockchain: Using Blockchain as a Carbon Emission Management Tool. Technologies and Eco-Innovation towards Sustainability I, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-1181-9_2"}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/12\/8\/1097\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:56:42Z","timestamp":1760140602000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/12\/8\/1097"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,26]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings12081097"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings12081097","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,26]]}}}