{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T01:20:37Z","timestamp":1793236837542,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Techniques to develop three-dimensional cell culture models are rapidly expanding to bridge the gap between conventional cell culture and animal models. Organoid and spheroid cultures have distinct and overlapping purposes and differ in cellular sources and protocol for establishment. Spheroids are of lower complexity structurally but are simple and popular models for drug screening. Organoids histologically and genetically resemble the original tumor from which they were derived. Ease of generation, ability for long-term culture and cryopreservation make organoids suitable for a wide range of applications. Organoids-on-chip models combine organoid methods with powerful designing and fabrication of micro-chip technology. Organoid-chip models can emulate the dynamic microenvironment of tumor pathophysiology as well as tissue\u2013tissue interactions. In this review, we outline different tumor spheroid and organoid models and techniques to establish them. We also discuss the recent advances and applications of tumor organoids with an emphasis on tumor modeling, drug screening, personalized medicine and immunotherapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13040874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T09:06:10Z","timestamp":1613725570000},"page":"874","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":478,"title":["Organoid and Spheroid Tumor Models: Techniques and Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Sreenivasulu","family":"Gunti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sinonasal and Skull Base Tumor Program, Head and Neck Surgery Branch, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Austin T.K.","family":"Hoke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sinonasal and Skull Base Tumor Program, Head and Neck Surgery Branch, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA"},{"name":"University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill\u2014School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27516, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9396-1120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenny P.","family":"Vu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sinonasal and Skull Base Tumor Program, Head and Neck Surgery Branch, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2902-4407","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"Jr.","given":"Nyall R.","family":"London","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sinonasal and Skull Base Tumor Program, Head and Neck Surgery Branch, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA"},{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology\u2014Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"American Cancer Socieity (2018). 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