{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T21:58:27Z","timestamp":1790891907684,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":381,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,25]],"date-time":"2021-12-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640390400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common malignant intraocular tumour in the adult population. It is a rare cancer with an incidence of nearly five cases per million inhabitants per year, which develops from the uncontrolled proliferation of melanocytes in the choroid (\u224890%), ciliary body (\u22486%) or iris (\u22484%). Patients initially present either with symptoms like blurred vision or photopsia, or without symptoms, with the tumour being detected in routine eye exams. Over the course of the disease, metastases, which are initially dormant, develop in nearly 50% of patients, preferentially in the liver. Despite decades of intensive research, the only approach proven to mildly control disease spread are early treatments directed to ablate liver metastases, such as surgical excision or chemoembolization. However, most patients have a limited life expectancy once metastases are detected, since there are limited therapeutic approaches for the metastatic disease, including immunotherapy, which unlike in cutaneous melanoma, has been mostly ineffective for UM patients. Therefore, in order to offer the best care possible to these patients, there is an urgent need to find robust models that can accurately predict the prognosis of UM, as well as therapeutic strategies that effectively block and\/or limit the spread of the metastatic disease. Here, we initially summarized the current knowledge about UM by compiling the most relevant epidemiological, clinical, pathological and molecular data. Then, we revisited the most important prognostic factors currently used for the evaluation and follow-up of primary UM cases. Afterwards, we addressed emerging prognostic biomarkers in UM, by comprehensively reviewing gene signatures, immunohistochemistry-based markers and proteomic markers resulting from research studies conducted over the past three years. Finally, we discussed the current hurdles in the field and anticipated the future challenges and novel avenues of research in UM.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14010096","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,27]],"date-time":"2021-12-27T01:00:54Z","timestamp":1640566854000},"page":"96","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":63,"title":["Prognostic Biomarkers in Uveal Melanoma: The Status Quo, Recent Advances and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4648-136X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno Jorge","family":"Lamas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Universit\u00e9 C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, Pasteur Hospital, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Biobank BB-0033-00025, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"Anatomic Pathology Service, Pathology Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio do Porto, Largo Professor Abel Salazar, 4099-001 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"},{"name":"ICVS\/3B\u2019s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3836-7126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arnaud","family":"Martel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCAN Team 4, Inserm U1081\/CNRS 7284, Centre de Lutte Contre le Cancer Antoine Lacassagne, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"FHU OncoAge, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Pasteur Hospital, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, 06000 Nice, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2274-0256","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sacha","family":"Nahon-Est\u00e8ve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCAN Team 4, Inserm U1081\/CNRS 7284, Centre de Lutte Contre le Cancer Antoine Lacassagne, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"FHU OncoAge, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Pasteur Hospital, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, 06000 Nice, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7082-5636","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samantha","family":"Goffinet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Universit\u00e9 C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, Pasteur Hospital, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Biobank BB-0033-00025, 06000 Nice, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Macocco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Universit\u00e9 C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, Pasteur Hospital, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Biobank BB-0033-00025, 06000 Nice, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corine","family":"Bertolotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Pathologies of Melanocytes, Team1, Equipe Labellis\u00e9e Ligue 2020 and Equipe Labellis\u00e9e ARC 2019, Centre M\u00e9diterran\u00e9en de M\u00e9decine Mol\u00e9culaire, INSERM, 06200 Nice, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra","family":"Lassalle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Universit\u00e9 C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, Pasteur Hospital, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Biobank BB-0033-00025, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"IRCAN Team 4, Inserm U1081\/CNRS 7284, Centre de Lutte Contre le Cancer Antoine Lacassagne, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"FHU OncoAge, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, 06000 Nice, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0431-9353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Hofman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Universit\u00e9 C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, Pasteur Hospital, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Biobank BB-0033-00025, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"IRCAN Team 4, Inserm U1081\/CNRS 7284, Centre de Lutte Contre le Cancer Antoine Lacassagne, 06000 Nice, France"},{"name":"FHU OncoAge, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, 06000 Nice, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2016.275","article-title":"Uveal melanoma: Relatively rare but deadly cancer","volume":"31","author":"Kaliki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S89591","article-title":"Uveal melanoma: Epidemiology, etiology, and treatment of primary disease","volume":"11","author":"Krantz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. 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