{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T03:14:36Z","timestamp":1790306076913,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]],"date-time":"2022-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643760000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thymic epithelial tumors are rare tumors usually presenting as a mass located in the anterior mediastinum and\/or with symptoms deriving from associated paraneoplastic syndromes. Unresectable platinum-refractory tumors are often treated with alternative regimens, including chemotherapeutic agents as well as chemo-free regimens. The most popular unconventional therapy is represented by the somatostatin analog octreotide, which can be used alone or with prednisone. The in vivo expression of somatostatin receptors documented by imaging with indium-labeled octreotide or gallium-68 Dotapeptides, the successful use of octreotide and prednisone in a chemo-refractory patient, and, thereafter, the experiences from a case series have enforced the idea that this treatment merits consideration\u2014as proved by its inclusion in the National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines. In the present review, we analyze the preclinical basis for the therapeutic use of somatostatin and prednisone in refractory thymic tumors and discuss the available studies looking at future perspectives.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14030774","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,3]],"date-time":"2022-02-03T05:42:33Z","timestamp":1643866953000},"page":"774","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Never-Ending History of Octreotide in Thymic Tumors: A Vintage or A Contemporary Drug?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6397-086X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liliana","family":"Montella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ASL NA2 NORD, Oncology Operative Unit, \u201cSanta Maria delle Grazie\u201d Hospital, 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9589-0808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margaret","family":"Ottaviano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oncology Unit, Ospedale del Mare, 80147 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"CRCTR Coordinating Rare Tumors Reference Center of Campania Region, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2516-076X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rocco","family":"Morra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2370-2139","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erica","family":"Pietroluongo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pietro","family":"De Placido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9853-9594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marianna","family":"Tortora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Sorrentino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaetano","family":"Facchini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ASL NA2 NORD, Oncology Operative Unit, \u201cSanta Maria delle Grazie\u201d Hospital, 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabino","family":"De Placido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CRCTR Coordinating Rare Tumors Reference Center of Campania Region, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario","family":"Giuliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CRCTR Coordinating Rare Tumors Reference Center of Campania Region, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0139-6038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovannella","family":"Palmieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2021, October 02). Nccn Clinical Practice in Oncology: Thymomas and Thymic Carcinomas. Version 1.2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.nccn.org\/guidelines\/category_1."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdp483","article-title":"Preliminary results of phase II study of capecitabine and gemcitabine (CAP-GEM) in patients with metastatic pretreated thymic epithelial tumors (TETs)","volume":"21","author":"Palmieri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.2217\/fon.14.144","article-title":"Capecitabine plus gemcitabine in thymic epithelial tumors: Final analysis of a Phase II trial","volume":"10","author":"Palmieri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Future Oncol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaira, K., Imai, H., and Kagamu, H. (2021). Perspective of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Thymic Carcinoma. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13051065"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tateo, V., Manuzzi, L., Parisi, C., De Giglio, A., Campana, D., Pantaleo, M.A., and Lamberti, G. (2021). An Overview on Molecular Characterization of Thymic Tumors: Old and New Targets for Clinical Advances. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14040316"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2021.10.010","article-title":"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Thymus and Mediastinum: What Is New in Thymic Epithelial, Germ Cell, and Mesenchymal Tumors?","volume":"17","author":"Marx","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2018.01.003","article-title":"The Integrated Genomic Landscape of Thymic Epithelial Tumors","volume":"33","author":"Radovich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.21037\/med.2019.08.03","article-title":"Deciphering the biology of thymic epithelial tumors","volume":"3","author":"Rajan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mediastinum"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7635","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd-2019-thym-12","article-title":"Immunotherapy for thymoma","volume":"12","author":"Jakopovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1111\/1759-7714.14002","article-title":"Significance of tumor mutation burden and immune infiltration in thymic epithelial tumors","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thorac. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/s12253-016-0144-8","article-title":"Molecular Profiling of Thymoma and Thymic Carcinoma: Genetic Differences and Potential Novel Therapeutic Targets","volume":"23","author":"Enkner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pathol. Oncol. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S286","DOI":"10.1097\/JTO.0b013e3181f209a8","article-title":"Thymoma and thymic carcinoma: Molecular pathology and targeted therapy","volume":"5","author":"Hohenberger","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s00280-011-1690-0","article-title":"Imatinib mesylate in thymic epithelial malignancies","volume":"69","author":"Palmieri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2010.30.2455","article-title":"Good Clinical Response to Imatinib Mesylate in Atypical Thymic Carcinoid With KIT Overexpression","volume":"29","author":"Hamada","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2625","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200406173502523","article-title":"Thymic Carcinoma with Overexpression of MutatedKITand the Response to Imatinib","volume":"350","author":"Hartmann","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2017.74.4078","article-title":"Phase II Study of Everolimus in Patients with Thymoma and Thymic Carcinoma Previously Treated with Cisplatin-Based Chemotherapy","volume":"36","author":"Zucali","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2016.04.024","article-title":"Sunitinib in patients with advanced thymic malignancies: Cohort from the French RYTHMIC network","volume":"97","author":"Remon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(14)71181-7","article-title":"Sunitinib in patients with chemotherapy-refractory thymoma and thymic carcinoma: An open-label phase 2 trial","volume":"16","author":"Thomas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(20)30162-5","article-title":"Lenvatinib in patients with advanced or metastatic thymic carcinoma (REMORA): A multicentre, phase 2 trial","volume":"21","author":"Sato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Moran, C.A., Morandi, U., and Schoenhuber, R. (2008). Complementary treatments in Thymic neoplasms; steroids and octreotide. Thymus Gland Pathology Clinical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Features, Springer."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"5","article-title":"Physiology of somatostatin receptors","volume":"28","author":"Lahlou","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Invest."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gatto, F., Barbieri, F., Arvigo, M., Thellung, S., Amar\u00f9, J., Albertelli, M., Ferone, D., and Florio, T. (2019). Biological and Biochemical Basis of the Differential Efficacy of First and Second Generation Somatostatin Receptor Ligands in Neuroendocrine Neoplasms. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20163940"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.1223","article-title":"Somatostatin inhibits the production of vascular endothelial growth factor in human glioma cells","volume":"92","author":"Mentlein","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6602503","article-title":"Somatostatin receptors 2 and 5 are preferentially expressed in proliferating endothelium","volume":"92","author":"Adams","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"2047","article-title":"Im-munocytochemical detection of somatostatin receptors sst1, sst2A, sst2B and sst3 in paraffin-embedded breast cancer tissue using subtype-specific antibodies","volume":"4","author":"Schultz","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"5805s","article-title":"Metastatic hormone-refractory prostatic adenocarcinoma expresses somatostatin receptors and is visualized in vivo by [111In]-labeled DTPA-D-[Phe1]-octreotide scintigraphy","volume":"55","author":"Nilsson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.2910500613","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo detection of somatostatin receptors in human malignant lymphomas","volume":"50","author":"Reubi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S31","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/10.suppl_2.S31","article-title":"Summing up 15 years of somatostatin analog therapy in neuroendocrine tumors: Future outlook","volume":"10","author":"Eriksson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"15","article-title":"Neuropeptides and their receptors in the immune system","volume":"31","author":"Hofland","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"565","article-title":"Differential expression of somatostatin receptor subtypes in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell subsets","volume":"150","author":"Dalm","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Kapoor, M., and Kasi, A. (2021). Octreotide Scan. 2 August 2021. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"412","article-title":"Neuroendocrine control of thymus physiology","volume":"21","author":"Savino","year":"2000","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"28","article-title":"Somatostatin receptors in the thymus","volume":"31","author":"Ferone","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dardenne, M. (1999). Role of thymic peptides as transmitters between the neuroendocrine and immune systems. Ann. Med., 31.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-4225-4_10"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"23","article-title":"Functional role of somatostatin receptors in neuroendocrine and immune cells","volume":"31","author":"Hofland","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.143.3.1015","article-title":"Somatostatin gene expression in the thymus gland","volume":"143","author":"Fuller","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11485","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.24.11485","article-title":"Evidence that somatostatin is localized and synthesized in lymphoid organs","volume":"88","author":"Aguila","year":"1991","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4141(200206)32:6<1550::AID-IMMU1550>3.0.CO;2-W","article-title":"Somatostatin is expressed in the murine thymus and enhances thymocyte development","volume":"32","author":"Solomou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"103","article-title":"Activation of rat thymocytes selectively upregulates the expression of somatostatin receptor subtype-1","volume":"38","author":"Sedqi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.npep.2007.06.003","article-title":"Changes in thymus size, cellularity and relation between thymocyte subpopulations in young adult rats induced by Somatostatin-14","volume":"41","author":"Rakin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropeptides"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1016\/S1567-5769(01)00098-4","article-title":"Modulatory effects of octreotide on anti-CD3 and dexamethasone-induced apoptosis of murine thymocytes","volume":"1","author":"Rukavina","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"634","article-title":"In vivo detection of malignant thymic masses by Indium-111-DTPA-D-Phe\u00b9-Octreotide Scintigraphy","volume":"39","author":"Lastoria","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"63","article-title":"Functional imaging of thymic disorders","volume":"31","author":"Lastoria","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.140.1.6398","article-title":"In vitro characterization of somatostatin receptors in the human thymus and effects of somatostatin and octreotide on cultured thymic epithelial cells","volume":"140","author":"Ferone","year":"1999","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.85.4.6547","article-title":"Somatostatin receptor subtypes in human thymoma and inhibition of cell proliferation by octreotide in vitro","volume":"85","author":"Ferone","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3304","DOI":"10.2741\/3453","article-title":"Somatostatin receptor expression in thymic tumors","volume":"14","author":"Ferone","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199701233360405","article-title":"Successful treatment of a patient with a thymoma and pure red-cell aplasia with octreotide and prednisone","volume":"336","author":"Palmieri","year":"1997","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13286","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000013286","article-title":"Metastatic thymic carcinoid responds to chemoradiation and octreotide: A case report","volume":"97","author":"Mei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr\/16436465","article-title":"The role of somatostatin analogues in the treatment of advanced malignant thymomas: Case report and review of the literature","volume":"84","author":"Pettit","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.48.1922","article-title":"Refractory recurrent thymoma successfully treated with long-acting somatostatin analogue and prednisolone","volume":"48","author":"Ito","year":"2009","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rpor.2020.08.012","article-title":"Octreotide in the treatment of malignant thymoma\u2014Case report","volume":"25","author":"Sorejs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rep. Pract. Oncol. Radiother."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1080\/02841860701203578","article-title":"Resolution of thymoma-related pure red cell aplasia after octreotide treatment","volume":"46","author":"Zaucha","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Oncol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1097\/MPH.0b013e318159a535","article-title":"Advanced pediatric inoperable thymus carcinoma (type c thymoma): Case report on a novel therapeutic approach","volume":"29","author":"Kertesz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Hematol Oncol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2004.02.047","article-title":"Octreotide alone or with prednisone in patients with advanced thymoma and thymic carcinoma: An eastern cooperative oncology group phase II trial","volume":"22","author":"Loehrer","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3106","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2002-08-2638","article-title":"Clonal expansion of CD8+ BV8 T lymphocytes in bone marrow characterizes thymoma-associated B lymphopenia","volume":"101","author":"Masci","year":"2003","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1007\/s00277-003-0635-z","article-title":"B-cell lymphopenia and hypogammaglobulinemia in thymoma patients","volume":"82","author":"Montella","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1177\/030089160509100416","article-title":"Fatal immunodeficiency in a patient with thymoma and Good\u2019s syndrome","volume":"91","author":"Montella","year":"2005","journal-title":"Tumori J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1002\/ajh.20699","article-title":"Thymoma followed by paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria: A unique clinical association in the context of multiorgan autoimmunity with a potential role for CD8+ T lymphocytes","volume":"81","author":"Palmieri","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1177\/039463201002300129","article-title":"Thymoma-associated immunodeficiency: A syndrome characterized by severe alterations in NK, T and B-cells and progressive increase in na\u00efve CD8+ T cells","volume":"23","author":"Vitiello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1517\/14740330903379525","article-title":"Octreotide LAR: Safety and tolerability issues","volume":"8","author":"Bornschein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1177\/0300891618765362","article-title":"Entering the third decade of experience with octreotide LAR in neuroendocrine tumors: A review of current knowledge","volume":"105","author":"Pusceddu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Tumori J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirzinger, L., Boy, S., Marienhagen, J., Schuierer, G., Neu, R., Ried, M., Hofmann, H.-S., Wiebe, K., Str\u00f6bel, P., and May, C. (2016). Octreotide LAR and prednisone as neoadjuvant treatment in patients with primary or locally recurrent unresectable thymic tumors: A phase II study. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0168215"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1097\/00003072-199901000-00006","article-title":"Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy and somatostatin therapy in the evaluation and treatment of malignant thymoma","volume":"24","author":"Lin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.10374","article-title":"Somatostatin analogs and prednisone in advanced refractory thymic tumors","volume":"94","author":"Palmieri","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1200\/jco.2005.23.16_suppl.2064","article-title":"Targeting the therapy: Octreotide in thymoma relapse","volume":"23","author":"Rosati","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S158","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-5002(05)80660-9","article-title":"P-166 Targeting the therapy: Octreotide in thymoma relapse","volume":"49","author":"Longo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2005.03.115","article-title":"CASE 1. Complete remission to corticosteroids in an octreotide-refractory thymoma","volume":"23","author":"Tiseo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1097\/COC.0b013e318209a8f8","article-title":"Efficacy and tolerability of long-acting octreotide in the treatment of thymic tumors: Results of a pilot trial","volume":"35","author":"Longo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"S2066","article-title":"P1.17-015 Long Acting Octreotide plus Prednisone in Advanced Thymic Epithelial Tumors: A Real Life Clinical Experience","volume":"12","author":"Ottaviano","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"1","article-title":"Long-Term Complete Remission of Recurrent Unresectable Thymoma Type B2 under Somatostatin Analogue Treatment. Case Report","volume":"4","author":"Serkies","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mathews J. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3977","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2009-0615","article-title":"Glucocorticoid Production and Regulation in Thymus: Of Mice and Birds","volume":"150","year":"2009","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI107591","article-title":"Human lymphocyte subpopulations. Effect of corticosteroids","volume":"53","author":"Yu","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)00357-4","article-title":"An unusual case of Addison\u2019s disease; sudden death; remarks","volume":"145","author":"Star","year":"1895","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"1","article-title":"A contribution to the normal and pathological histology of the thymus gland","volume":"22","author":"Pappenheimer","year":"1910","journal-title":"J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-8749(86)90011-0","article-title":"Presence of glucocorticoid receptors in cultured thymic epithelial cells","volume":"100","author":"Dardenne","year":"1986","journal-title":"Cell Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"18","article-title":"Neuroendocrine control of the thymic epithelium: Modulation of thymic endocrine function, cy-tokeratin expression and cell proliferation by hormones and neuropeptides","volume":"3","author":"Dardenne","year":"1990","journal-title":"Progr. Neuro. Endocrinol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"2278","article-title":"Thymic endocrinology Part-1","volume":"71","author":"Dasgupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pak. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"55","article-title":"How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions","volume":"21","author":"Sapolsky","year":"2000","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2797","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612043383575","article-title":"Immunomodulatory activities of glucocorticoids: Insights from transgenesis and gene targeting","volume":"10","author":"Reichardt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(19860315)57:6<1101::AID-CNCR2820570606>3.0.CO;2-A","article-title":"Chemotherapy of malignant thymoma. Case report and review of the literature","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"1986","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"115","article-title":"High-dose methylprednisolone-containing chemotherapy in advanced invasive thymoma. Report of three cases","volume":"46","author":"Suda","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nippon Kyobu Geha Gakkai Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-004-0646-8","article-title":"Glucocorticoids induce G1 cell cycle arrest in human neoplastic thymic epithelial cells","volume":"131","author":"Funakoshi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"476","article-title":"Regression of malignant thymoma with metastases after treatment with adrenocortical steroids","volume":"14","author":"Almog","year":"1978","journal-title":"Isr. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"975","article-title":"A case of small thymoma associated with myasthenia gravis in which the tumor was reduced by corticosteroid therapy","volume":"40","author":"Mizuno","year":"1992","journal-title":"Nippon Kyobu Geha Gakkai Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1007\/s11748-006-0099-x","article-title":"Rapid regression of stage IVb invasive thymoma under palliative corticosteroid administration","volume":"55","author":"Fujiwara","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gen. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcts.2007.02.032","article-title":"Complete regression of a thymoma to glucocorticoids, commenced for palliation of symptoms","volume":"31","author":"Barratt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardio Thorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(19900315)65:6<1286::AID-CNCR2820650605>3.0.CO;2-8","article-title":"Metastasizing thymoma and myasthenia gravis. Fa-vorable response to glucocorticoids after failed chemotherapy and radiation therapy","volume":"65","author":"Tandan","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/S0936-6555(05)80783-6","article-title":"Dramatic response of recurrent invasive thymoma to high doses of corticosteroids","volume":"4","author":"Kirkove","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"3645","article-title":"High-dose methylprednisolone with chemotherapy for invasive thymoma: A case report","volume":"26","author":"Hayashi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1097\/JTO.0b013e31802bafc8","article-title":"Multidisciplinary treatment for advanced invasive thymoma with cisplatin, doxorubicin, and methylprednisolone","volume":"2","author":"Yokoi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.21875","article-title":"Preoperative steroid pulse therapy for invasive thymoma: Clinical experience and mechanism of action","volume":"106","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584703","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.584703","article-title":"Remission of Thymoma on Steroid Therapy in a Patient With Atypical Thymoma-Associated Multiorgan Autoimmunity: A Case Report and Literature Review","volume":"12","author":"Wrona","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1159\/000072798","article-title":"Role of Glucocorticoids in the regulation of pituitary somatostatin receptor subtype (sst1\u2013sst5) mRNA levels: Evidence for direct and somatostatin-mediated effects","volume":"78","author":"Park","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12930","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)69251-8","article-title":"The regulation of somatostatin production in human medullary thyroid carcinoma cells by dexamethasone","volume":"261","author":"Cote","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R173","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-19-0074","article-title":"Anniversary review: Octreotide, 40 years later","volume":"181","author":"Lamberts","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1458","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd.2017.03.82","article-title":"Molecular strategies in the management of bronchopulmonary and thymic neuroendocrine neoplasms","volume":"9","author":"Modlin","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annonc.2021.01.003","article-title":"Lung and thymic carcinoids: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up","volume":"32","author":"Baudin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.esmoop.2021.100188","article-title":"Clinical management of patients with thymic epithelial tumors: The recommendations endorsed by the Italian Association of Medical Oncology (AIOM)","volume":"6","author":"Conforti","year":"2021","journal-title":"ESMO Open"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6803","DOI":"10.2147\/CMAR.S171683","article-title":"Optimal management of thymic malignancies: Current perspectives","volume":"11","author":"Drevet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Manag. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maury, J.-M., du Vignaux, C.M., Drevet, G., Zarza, V., Chalabreysse, L., Maisse, C., Gineys, B., Dolmazon, C., Tronc, F., and Girard, N. (2019). Activation of the mTOR\/ Akt pathway in thymic epithelial cells derived from thymomas. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197655"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"v40","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdv277","article-title":"Thymic epithelial tumours: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up","volume":"26","author":"Girard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.5306\/wjco.v3.i7.111","article-title":"Everolimus plus long-acting somatostatin analogs in thymic epithelial malignancies","volume":"3","author":"Palmieri","year":"2012","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2019-0393","article-title":"Metastatic Thymoma Harboring a Deleterious BRCA2 Mutation Derives Durable Clinical Benefit from Olaparib","volume":"25","author":"Principe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hennrich, U., and Kopka, K. (2019). Lutathera\u00ae: The First FDA- and EMA-Approved Radiopharmaceutical for Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy. Pharmaceuticals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph12030114"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e278","DOI":"10.1097\/RLU.0000000000000733","article-title":"Thymoma treated with 177Lu DOTATATE induction and maintenance PRRT","volume":"40","author":"Makis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"(2021, October 10). NCT04375267, Available online: Clinicaltrials.gov."}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/14\/3\/774\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:13:03Z","timestamp":1760134383000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/14\/3\/774"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]]},"references-count":106,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers14030774"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers14030774","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]]}}}