{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T08:03:48Z","timestamp":1771920228554,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685145600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a malignancy associated with asbestos exposure and is typically categorized as an orphan disease. Recent developments in immunotherapy with anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies, specifically with agents nivolumab and ipilimumab, have demonstrated an improvement in overall survival over the previous standard chemotherapy leading to their FDA-approval as first-line therapy for unresectable disease. For quite some time, it has been known that these proteins are not the only ones that function as immune checkpoints in human biology, and the hypothesis that MPM is an immunogenic disease has led to an expanding number of studies investigating alternative checkpoint inhibitors and novel immunotherapy for this malignancy. Early trials are also supporting the notion that therapies that target biological molecules on T cells, cancer cells, or that trigger the antitumor activity of other immune cells may represent the future of MPM treatment. Moreover, mesothelin-targeted therapies are thriving in the field, with forthcoming results from multiple trials signaling an improvement in overall survival when combined with other immunotherapy agents. The following manuscript will review the current state of immune therapy for MPM, explore the knowledge gaps in the field, and discuss ongoing novel immunotherapeutic research in early clinical trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15112940","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T16:17:33Z","timestamp":1685204253000},"page":"2940","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Success of Checkpoint Blockade Paves the Way for Novel Immune Therapy in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Lizbeth","family":"Rondon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Hennepin County Medical Center, Minneapolis, MN 55404, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Hennepin County Medical Center, Minneapolis, MN 55404, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manish R.","family":"Patel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2161","DOI":"10.1111\/crj.12938","article-title":"Current treatments and trials in malignant pleural mesothelioma","volume":"12","author":"Bibby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2018.02.021","article-title":"Progress in the Management of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma in 2017","volume":"13","author":"McCambridge","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray, S.G. (2021). Emerging avenues in immunotherapy for the management of malignant pleural mesothelioma. BMC Pulm. Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-021-01513-7"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"562","article-title":"Immunotherapy for mesothelioma: Rationale and new approaches","volume":"18","author":"Reuss","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Adv. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1200\/OP.21.00426","article-title":"Management of Advanced Pleural Mesothelioma\u2014At the Crossroads","volume":"18","author":"Nowak","year":"2022","journal-title":"JCO Oncol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2003.11.136","article-title":"Phase III Study of Pemetrexed in Combination with Cisplatin Versus Cisplatin Alone in Patients with Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma","volume":"21","author":"Vogelzang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S311","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd.2017.10.131","article-title":"Target therapy: New drugs or new combinations of drugs in malignant pleural mesothelioma","volume":"10","author":"Zucali","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00e9sage, A.L., Karpathiou, G., Peoc\u2019h, M., and Froudarakis, M.E. (2021). The Immune Microenvironment of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma: A Literature Review. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13133205"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4456","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-07-0403","article-title":"A phase I clinical trial of single-dose intrapleural IFN-beta gene transfer for malignant pleural mesothelioma and metastatic pleural effusions: High rate of antitumor immune responses","volume":"13","author":"Sterman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1869","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6605438","article-title":"Treatment with interleukin-2 in malignant pleural mesothelioma: Immunological and angiogenetic assessment and prognostic impact","volume":"101","author":"Al","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(13)70381-4","article-title":"Tremelimumab for patients with chemotherapy-resistant advanced malignant mesothelioma: An open-label, single-arm, phase 2 trial","volume":"14","author":"Morra","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(17)30446-1","article-title":"Tremelimumab as second-line or third-line treatment in relapsed malignant mesothelioma (DETERMINE): A multicentre, international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2b trial","volume":"18","author":"Maio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(21)00471-X","article-title":"Nivolumab versus placebo in patients with relapsed malignant mesothelioma (CONFIRM): A multicentre, double-blind, randomised, phase 3 trial","volume":"22","author":"Fennell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5485","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-19-0103","article-title":"Clinical Efficacy and Safety of Nivolumab: Results of a Multicenter, Open-label, Single-arm, Japanese Phase II study in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MERIT)","volume":"25","author":"Okada","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2016.11.300","article-title":"OA13.01 A Phase II Study of Nivolumab in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (NivoMes): With Translational Research (TR) Biopies","volume":"12","author":"Zago","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2119934","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.19934","article-title":"Clinical Efficacy of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Patients with Advanced Malignant Peritoneal Mesothelioma","volume":"4","author":"Raghav","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2988","DOI":"10.21037\/tlcr-20-673","article-title":"Immunotherapy in malignant pleural mesothelioma: A review of literature data","volume":"10","author":"Menis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Lung Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(17)30169-9","article-title":"Clinical safety and activity of pembrolizumab in patients with malignant pleural mesothelioma (KEYNOTE-028): Preliminary results from a non-randomised, open-label, phase 1b trial","volume":"18","author":"Alley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2018.08.277","article-title":"OA08.03 Phase II Trial of Pembrolizumab (NCT02399371) In Previously Treated Malignant Mesothelioma (MM): Final Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Desai","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annonc.2020.09.009","article-title":"A multicentre randomised phase III trial comparing pembrolizumab versus single-agent chemotherapy for advanced pre-treated malignant pleural mesothelioma: The European Thoracic Oncology Platform (ETOP 9-15) PROMISE-meso trial","volume":"31","author":"Popat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2018.5428","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Avelumab Treatment in Patients with Advanced Unresectable Mesothelioma: Phase 1b Results from the JAVELIN Solid Tumor Trial","volume":"5","author":"Hassan","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2018.08.276","article-title":"OA08.02 DREAM\u2014A Phase 2 Trial of Durvalumab with First Line Chemotherapy in Mesothelioma: Final Result","volume":"13","author":"Nowak","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(18)30765-4","article-title":"Nivolumab or nivolumab plus ipilimumab in patients with relapsed malignant pleural mesothelioma (IFCT-1501 MAPS2): A multicentre, open-label, randomised, non-comparative, phase 2 trial","volume":"20","author":"Scherpereel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30420-X","article-title":"Ipilimumab and nivolumab in the treatment of recurrent malignant pleural mesothelioma (INITIATE): Results of a prospective, single-arm, phase 2 trial","volume":"7","author":"Disselhorst","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30151-6","article-title":"Tremelimumab combined with durvalumab in patients with mesothelioma (NIBIT-MESO-1): An open-label, non-randomised, phase 2 study","volume":"6","author":"Morra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4477","DOI":"10.2147\/OTT.S317434","article-title":"Advances in Immunotherapy of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma","volume":"14","author":"Liao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Onco Targets Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)32714-8","article-title":"First-line nivolumab plus ipilimumab in unresectable malignant pleural mesothelioma (CheckMate 743): A multicentre, randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial","volume":"397","author":"Baas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000461","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2019-000461","article-title":"Current evidence and future perspectives of immune-checkpoint inhibitors in unresectable malignant pleural mesothelioma","volume":"8","author":"Hotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2021.07.009","article-title":"IMpower150 Final Overall Survival Analyses for Atezolizumab Plus Bevacizumab and Chemotherapy in First-Line Metastatic Nonsquamous NSCLC","volume":"16","author":"Socinski","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forde, P.M., Nowak, A.K., Kok, P.S., Brown, C., Sun, Z., Anagnostou, V., O\u2019Byrne, K.J., Yip, S., Cook, A., and Joost, W. (2021). DREAM3R: Durvalumab with chemotherapy as first-line treatment in advanced pleural mesothelioma\u2014A phase 3 randomized trial. J. Clin. Oncol., 39.","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2021.39.15_suppl.TPS8586"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Pembrolizumab in Patients with Advanced Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02784171."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). A Study of Pembrolizumab in Combination with Cisplatin and Pemetrexed in Advanced Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM) (MK-3475-A17), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04153565."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). A Study of Yervoy and Opdivo Combination Therapy in Participants with Unresectable Advanced\/Recurrent Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT05324436."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). BEAT-Meso: Bevacizumab and Atezolizumab in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03762018."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01541-0","article-title":"Durvalumab with platinum-pemetrexed for unresectable pleural mesothelioma: Survival, genomic and immunologic analyses from the phase 2 PrE0505 trial","volume":"27","author":"Forde","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2017.09.1968","article-title":"Molecular and Histopathological Characterization of the Tumor Immune Microenvironment in Advanced Stage of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma","volume":"13","author":"Patil","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2016.07.012","article-title":"New therapeutic strategies for malignant pleural mesothelioma","volume":"123","author":"Bonelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2016.06.020","article-title":"BRCA1-Associated Protein 1 (BAP1) Immunohistochemical Expression as a Diagnostic Tool in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma Classification: A Large Retrospective Study","volume":"11","author":"Righi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S100","DOI":"10.21037\/tlcr.2019.11.23","article-title":"Immunotherapy for mesothelioma: A critical review of current clinical trials and future perspectives","volume":"9","author":"Gray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Lung Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). A Study of MGD013 in Patients with Unresectable or Metastatic Neoplasms, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03219268."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). SL-279252 (PD1-Fc-OX40L) in Subjects with Advanced Solid Tumors or Lymphomas, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03894618."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Study of the Efficacy and Safety of the Bintrafusp Alfa in Previously Treated Advanced Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT05005429."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Pembrolizumab Plus Lenvatinib in Second Line and Third Line Malignant Pleural mesothelioma Patients, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04287829."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2022.07.030","article-title":"OA04.06 PEMbrolizumab Plus Lenvatinib in Second and Third Line Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma Patients: A Single Arm Phase II Study (PEMMELA)","volume":"17","author":"Douma","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-021-02905-3","article-title":"NIPU: A randomised, open-label, phase II study evaluating nivolumab and ipilimumab combined with UV1 vaccination as second line treatment in patients with malignant mesothelioma","volume":"19","author":"Haakensen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Nivolumab and Ipilimumab +\/\u2212 UV1 Vaccination as Second Line Treatment in Patients with Malignant Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04300244."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). MTG201 Plus Nivolumab in Patients with Relapsed Pleural Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04013334."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Using a Targeted Cancer Vaccine (Galinpepimut-S) With Immunotherapy (Nivolumab) in Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04040231."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Pembrolizumab and Hypofractionated Stereotactic Radiotherapy in Patients with Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04166734."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Phase II Nivolumab and Ramucirumab for Patients with Previously-Treated Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03502746."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Atezolizumab and Bevacizumab in Treating Patients with Rare Solid Tumors, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03074513."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Kennedy, P.P., Kile, Q., Jacobson, B., Ettestad, B., Zorko, N., Hallstrom, C., Kodal, B., Todhunter, D., Vallera, D., and Berk, G. (2022). Regular and Young Investigator Award Abstracts, BMJ Publishing Group Ltd."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Safety Study of MGD009 in B7-H3-expressing Tumors, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02628535."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Aggarwal, C., Joshua, A., Ferris, R., Antonia, S., Rahma, O., Tolcher, A., Cohen, R., Lou, Y., Hauke, R., and Vogelzang, N. (2023, May 15). Rhode Island Hospital. Peninsula and Southeast Oncology. Available online: http:\/\/ir.macrogenics.com\/events.cfm."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Safety Study of Enoblituzumab (MGA271) in Combination with Pembrolizumab or MGA012 in Refractory Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02475213."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)01238-6","article-title":"Bevacizumab for newly diagnosed pleural mesothelioma in the Mesothelioma Avastin Cisplatin Pemetrexed Study (MAPS): A randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3 trial","volume":"387","author":"Zalcman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(19)30139-0","article-title":"Nintedanib in combination with pemetrexed and cisplatin for chemotherapy-naive patients with advanced malignant pleural mesothelioma (LUME-Meso): A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial","volume":"7","author":"Scagliotti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2108330","article-title":"Lenvatinib plus Pembrolizumab for Advanced Endometrial Cancer","volume":"386","author":"Makker","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.22.00912","article-title":"Phase II Randomized Study of Ramucirumab and Pembrolizumab Versus Standard of Care in Advanced Non\u2013Small-Cell Lung Cancer Previously Treated with Immunotherapy\u2014Lung-MAP S1800A","volume":"40","author":"Reckamp","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4171","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2016.68.3672","article-title":"Mesothelin Immunotherapy for Cancer: Ready for Prime Time?","volume":"34","author":"Hassan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Anti-Mesothelin Immunotoxin LMB-100 Followed by Pembrolizumab in Malignant Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03644550."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Safety and Efficacy of Listeria in Combination with Chemotherapy as Front-line Treatment for Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT01675765."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Evaluation of CRS-207 with Pembrolizumab in Previously Treated Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03175172."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5787","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-19-0070","article-title":"Clinical Response of Live-Attenuated, Listeria monocytogenes Expressing Mesothelin (CRS-207) with Chemotherapy in Patients with Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma","volume":"25","author":"Hassan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Study of CRS-207, Nivolumab, and Ipilimumab with or without GVAX Pancreas Vaccine (with Cy) in Patients with Pancreatic Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03190265."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1080\/14712598.2021.1843628","article-title":"Mesothelin-targeted CAR-T cell therapy for solid tumors","volume":"21","author":"Klampatsa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klampatsa, A., Haas, A., Moon, E., and Albelda, S. (2017). Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T Cell Therapy for Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM). Cancers, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers9090115"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2748","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-21-0407","article-title":"A Phase I Trial of Regional Mesothelin-Targeted CAR T-cell Therapy in Patients with Malignant Pleural Disease, in Combination with the Anti\u2013PD-1 Agent Pembrolizumab","volume":"11","author":"Adusumilli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-15-0583","article-title":"Mesothelin-Targeted CARs: Driving T Cells to Solid Tumors","volume":"6","author":"Morello","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2674","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-21-1046","article-title":"New Immunotherapy Combinations Enter the Battlefield of Malignant Mesothelioma","volume":"11","author":"Aldea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Phase 1\/2 Trial of Gavo-cel (TC-210) in Patients with Advanced Mesothelin-Expressing Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03907852."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). A Phase 1\/2 Trial of TC-510 In Patients with Advanced Mesothelin-Expressing Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT05451849."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Intratumor Injection of Anti-Mesothelin Immunotoxin LMB-100 with Ipilimumab in Malignant Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04840615."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2023, May 23). Mesothelin-Targeted CAR T-Cell Therapy in Patients with Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04577326."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Autologous CAR-T\/TCR-T Cell Immunotherapy for Malignancies, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03638206."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). CAR T Cells in Mesothelin Expressing Cancers, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03054298."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Pembrolizumab with or without Anetumab Ravtansine in Treating Patients with Mesothelin-Positive Pleural Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03126630."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Malignant Pleural Disease Treated with Autologous T Cells Genetically Engineered to Target the Cancer-Cell Surface Antigen Mesothelin\u2014Full Text View\u2014ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02414269."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238431","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/238431","article-title":"Functional Alteration of Natural Killer Cells and Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes upon Asbestos Exposure and in Malignant Mesothelioma Patients","volume":"2015","author":"Nishimura","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s12199-021-00967-9","article-title":"Effect of IL-15 addition on asbestos-induced suppression of human cytotoxic T lymphocyte induction","volume":"26","author":"Nishimura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Health Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Kennedy, P.P., Kile, Q., Jacobson, B., Ettestad, B., Miller, S., Miller, J., Patel, M., and Felices, M. (2022). Regular and Young Investigator Award Abstracts, BMJ Publishing Group Ltd."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2790","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2016.1198455","article-title":"TriKEs and BiKEs join CARs on the cancer immunotherapy highway","volume":"12","author":"Tay","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). DENdritic Cell Immunotherapy for Mesothelioma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03610360238431."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Pembrolizumab Plus Autologous Dendritic Cell Vaccine in Patients with PD-L1 Negative Advanced Mesothelioma Who Have Failed Prior Therapies, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03546426238431."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2761","DOI":"10.1158\/1535-7163.MCT-10-0090","article-title":"Genetically Engineered Oncolytic Newcastle Disease Virus Effectively Induces Sustained Remission of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma","volume":"9","author":"Silberhumer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1038\/cgt.2010.10","article-title":"Oncolytic measles viruses encoding interferon \u03b2 and the thyroidal sodium iodide symporter gene for mesothelioma virotherapy","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7713","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-09-1013","article-title":"Expression of IFN-\u03b2 Enhances Both Efficacy and Safety of Oncolytic Vesicular Stomatitis Virus for Therapy of Mesothelioma","volume":"69","author":"Willmon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2017.00179","article-title":"Oncolytic Viral Therapy for Mesothelioma","volume":"7","author":"Pease","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2002.08.042","article-title":"Phase I Trial of Intravenous Administration of PV701, an Oncolytic Virus, in Patients with Advanced Solid Cancers","volume":"20","author":"Pecora","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/s41417-021-00359-9","article-title":"Combination therapy with CAR T cells and oncolytic viruses: A new era in cancer immunotherapy","volume":"29","author":"Rezaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e99573","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.99573","article-title":"Pancreatic cancer therapy with combined mesothelin-redirected chimeric antigen receptor T cells and cytokine-armed oncolytic adenoviruses","volume":"3","author":"Watanabe","year":"2018","journal-title":"JCI Insight"}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/15\/11\/2940\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:43:14Z","timestamp":1760125394000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/15\/11\/2940"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers15112940"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers15112940","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]]}}}