{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T01:17:55Z","timestamp":1785287875017,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":404,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]],"date-time":"2024-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708646400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Associazione Gian Franco Lupo\u2014Un sorriso alla vita\u2014ONLUS"},{"name":"Immuno-HUB_T4-CN-02-year 2021-Ministry of Health"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Liver cancer, predominantly hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), globally ranks sixth in incidence and third in cancer-related deaths. HCC risk factors include non-viral hepatitis, alcohol abuse, environmental exposures, and genetic factors. No specific genetic alterations are unequivocally linked to HCC tumorigenesis. Current standard therapies include surgical options, systemic chemotherapy, and kinase inhibitors, like sorafenib and regorafenib. Immunotherapy, targeting immune checkpoints, represents a promising avenue. FDA-approved checkpoint inhibitors, such as atezolizumab and pembrolizumab, show efficacy, and combination therapies enhance clinical responses. Despite this, the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a challenge, as the complex tumor ecosystem and the immunosuppressive microenvironment associated with it hamper the efficacy of the available therapeutic approaches. This review explores current and advanced approaches to treat HCC, considering both known and new potential targets, especially derived from proteomic analysis, which is today considered as the most promising approach. Exploring novel strategies, this review discusses antibody drug conjugates (ADCs), chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy (CAR-T), and engineered antibodies. It then reports a systematic analysis of the main ligand\/receptor pairs and molecular pathways reported to be overexpressed in tumor cells, highlighting their potential and limitations. Finally, it discusses TGF\u03b2, one of the most promising targets of the HCC microenvironment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16050901","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]],"date-time":"2024-02-23T10:47:30Z","timestamp":1708685250000},"page":"901","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Old and Emerging Therapeutic Targets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6504-9882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Greta","family":"Pessino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5790-1833","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Scotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9075-8143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maristella","family":"Maggi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"Immuno-HUB Consortium","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16018","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.18","article-title":"Hepatocellular Carcinoma","volume":"2","author":"Llovet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. 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