{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T22:13:37Z","timestamp":1791929617812,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,27]],"date-time":"2024-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711497600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"New Hampshire Drinking Water and Ground Water Trust Fund"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Purpose: To review the childhood risk factors for pediatric cancer (diagnosis before age 20). Methods: We conducted literature searches using Ovid Medline and Scopus to find primary research studies, review articles, and meta-analyses published from 2014 to 3 March 2021. Results: Strong evidence indicates that an array of genetic and epigenetic phenomena, structural birth defects, and chromosomal anomalies are associated with an increased risk of various childhood cancers. Increased risk is also associated with prior cancer, likely due to previous treatment agents and therapeutic ionizing radiation. Convincing evidence supports associations between several pediatric cancers and ionizing radiation, immunosuppression, and carcinogenic virus infection both in healthy children and in association with immune suppression following organ transplantation. Breastfeeding and a childhood diet rich in fruits and vegetables appears to reduce the risk of pediatric leukemia but the evidence is less strong. Childhood vaccination against carcinogenic viruses is associated with a lower risk of several cancers; there is less strong evidence that other childhood vaccinations more broadly may also lower risk. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is associated with increased melanoma risk, although most melanomas following childhood UV exposure occur later, in adulthood. Evidence is weak or conflicting for the role of body mass index, other childhood infections, allergies, and certain treatments, including immunomodulator medications and human growth therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16071297","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,27]],"date-time":"2024-03-27T12:41:57Z","timestamp":1711543317000},"page":"1297","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Causes of Childhood Cancer: A Review of the Recent Literature: Part I\u2014Childhood Factors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3507-9946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angela M.","family":"Ricci","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology, Dartmouth Health Childrens, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8780-5439","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebecca T.","family":"Emeny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Molecular Medicine, UNM Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cancer Control & Population Sciences Research Program, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pamela J.","family":"Bagley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Libraries, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heather B.","family":"Blunt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Libraries, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mary E.","family":"Butow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, Concord, NH 03302, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8531-5762","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Morgan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dartmouth Health, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2600-446X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer A.","family":"Alford-Teaster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New London Hospital Association, New London, NH 03257, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linda","family":"Titus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth Cancer Center, Hanover, NH 03755, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"suffix":"III","given":"Raymond R.","family":"Walston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Hematology Oncology, Children\u2019s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judy R.","family":"Rees","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth Cancer Center, Hanover, NH 03755, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(17)30186-9","article-title":"International incidence of childhood cancer, 2001\u201310: A population-based registry study","volume":"18","author":"Colombet","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2021, June 29). 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