{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T12:40:52Z","timestamp":1791463252569,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]],"date-time":"2024-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727913600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis (IGM) is a rare, benign inflammatory breast condition often mistaken for inflammatory breast cancer and, therefore, requires a biopsy for accurate diagnosis. Although not cancerous, IGM can cause emotional distress because of severe pain and ensuing breast deformity. Differentiating IGM from other breast inflammations caused by infections is essential. IGM mostly affects premenopausal women and is potentially associated with recent pregnancies and breastfeeding. The risk factors, including smoking and contraceptive use, have inconsistent associations. Steroid responses suggest an autoimmune component, though specific markers are lacking. Methods: We performed a narrative review on potential risk factors, diagnostics, and therapy of IGM. Results: Diagnostics and clinical management of IGM are challenging. The treatment options include NSAIDs, steroids, surgery, antibiotics, immunosuppressants, prolactin suppressants, and observation, each with varying effectiveness and side effects. Conclusions: Current IGM treatment evidence is limited, based on case reports and small series. There is no consensus on the optimal management strategy for this disease. The GRAMAREG study by the EUBREAST Study Group aims to collect comprehensive data on IGM to improve diagnostic and treatment guidelines. By enrolling patients with confirmed IGM, the study seeks to develop evidence-based recommendations, enhancing patient care and understanding of this condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16193387","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]],"date-time":"2024-10-03T06:45:52Z","timestamp":1727937952000},"page":"3387","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis as a Benign Condition Mimicking Inflammatory Breast Cancer: Current Status, Knowledge Gaps and Rationale for the GRAMAREG Study (EUBREAST-15)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0319-486X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalia","family":"Krawczyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Duesseldorf, 40225 Duesseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8708-2824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thorsten","family":"K\u00fchn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Ulm, 89070 Ulm, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Die Filderklinik, 70794 Filderstadt, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nina","family":"Ditsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Breast Cancer Center, University Hospital Augsburg, 86156 Augsburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0145-1589","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steffi","family":"Hartmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4489-1867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oreste Davide","family":"Gentilini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Breast Surgery, San Raffaele University and Research Hospital, 20132 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annette","family":"Lebeau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"Private Group Practice for Pathology L\u00fcbeck, 23552 L\u00fcbeck, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9518-0902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jana","family":"de Boniface","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Breast Unit, Capio St G\u00f6ran\u2019s Hospital, 11281 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3693-9100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Markus","family":"Hahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Women\u2019s Health, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5802-4441","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G\u00fcldeniz Karadeniz","family":"\u00c7akmak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Breast and Endocrine Unit, General Surgery Department, Zonguldak BEUN The School of Medicine, Zonguldak 67600, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sadaf","family":"Alipour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Breast Diseases Research Center, Cancer Institute, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1419733141, Iran"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Arash Women\u2019s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1653915911, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vesna","family":"Bjelic-Radisic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Breast Unit, Helios University Hospital Wuppertal, University Witten-Herdecke, 42283 Wuppertal, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0221-3272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hans-Christian","family":"Kolberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Gynecology and Obstetrics, Marienhospital Bottrop, 46236 Bottrop, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3014-370X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toralf","family":"Reimer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Luisa","family":"Gasparri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Ospedale Regionale di Lugano EOC, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland"},{"name":"Centro di Senologia della Svizzera Italiana (CSSI), Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, via Pietro Capelli 1, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland"},{"name":"Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera Italiana (USI), via Giuseppe Buffi 13, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4592-2151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikolas","family":"Tauber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein Campus L\u00fcbeck, 23538 L\u00fcbeck, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8317-0635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melissa","family":"Neubacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Duesseldorf, 40225 Duesseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maggie","family":"Banys-Paluchowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein Campus L\u00fcbeck, 23538 L\u00fcbeck, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/58.6.642","article-title":"Granulomatous mastitis: A lesion clinically simulating carcinoma","volume":"58","author":"Kessler","year":"1972","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1309\/AJCP1W9JBRYOQSNZ","article-title":"Cystic neutrophilic granulomatous mastitis: An underappreciated pattern strongly associated with gram-positive bacilli","volume":"136","author":"Renshaw","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2009). Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis in Hispanic women\u2014Indiana, 2006\u20132008. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 58, 1317\u20131321."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.breast.2015.04.003","article-title":"Granulomatous mastitis: Presentations, diagnosis, treatment and outcome in 206 patients from the north of Iran","volume":"24","author":"Aghajanzadeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Breast"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.13822","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: Management and predictors of recurrence in 474 patients","volume":"26","author":"Azizi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.18295\/squmj.4.2022.030","article-title":"Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis: Six years of experience and the current evidence in literature","volume":"23","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sultan Qaboos Univ. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.5152\/turkjsurg.2017.3439","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: An institutional experience","volume":"33","author":"Prasad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Turk. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-009-1207-2","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: Case reports and review of literature","volume":"25","author":"Patel","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjsurg.2017.07.002","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: A diagnostic and therapeutic challenge","volume":"214","author":"Freeman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2007.07.041","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: A 25-year experience","volume":"206","author":"Knox","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Surg."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.12263","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis--a prospective study of 49 women and treatment outcomes with steroid therapy","volume":"20","author":"Pandey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3233\/BD-160238","article-title":"Etiologic revelation and outcome of the surgical management of idiopathic granulomatous mastitis; An Egyptian centre experience","volume":"36","author":"Elzahaby","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breast Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.5152\/eurasianjmed.2015.118","article-title":"Granulomatous Mastitis: A Ten-Year Experience at a University Hospital","volume":"47","author":"Korkut","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eurasian J. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1186\/s13256-022-03327-5","article-title":"Granulomatous mastitis, erythema nodosum, and polyarthritis: A case report","volume":"16","author":"Laor","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.13778","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis in the male population: A clinical analysis of 13 reported cases","volume":"26","author":"Yaghan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3941\/jrcr.v11i2.2934","article-title":"Granulomatous Mastitis in a Transgender Patient","volume":"11","author":"Sam","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Radiol. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mpdhp.2019.01.004","article-title":"Pathology of the male breast","volume":"25","author":"Shaaban","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diagn. Histopathol. Mini-Symp. Breast Pathol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.32768\/abc.202310138-47","article-title":"Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis and History of Hypothyroidism: Intervening Data of a Prospective Multicenter Trial and Meta-Analysis of the Existing Literature: IGM and Hypothyroidism","volume":"10","author":"Alipour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-1596-7-2","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis associated with risperidone-induced hyperprolactinemia","volume":"7","author":"Lin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diagn. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"e4680","article-title":"A Rare Case of Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis in a Nulliparous Woman with Hyperprolactinemia","volume":"11","author":"Agrawal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.4048\/jbc.2012.15.3.371","article-title":"Granulomatous Mastitis during Chronic Antidepressant Therapy: Is It Possible a Conservative Therapeutic Approach?","volume":"15","author":"Bellavia","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"417","article-title":"Periductal inflammation and cigarette smoke","volume":"179","author":"Furlong","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Surg."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00268-007-9116-1","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: A heterogeneous disease with variable clinical presentation","volume":"31","author":"Baslaim","year":"2007","journal-title":"World J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1111\/ans.14115","article-title":"Factors related to recurrence of idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: What do we learn from a multicentre study?","volume":"88","author":"Uysal","year":"2018","journal-title":"ANZ J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.12123","article-title":"Management of idiopathic granulomatous mastitis diagnosed by core biopsy: A retrospective multicenter study","volume":"19","author":"Oran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1075-122X.2005.21576.x","article-title":"Feasibility of surgical management in patients with granulomatous mastitis","volume":"11","author":"Asoglu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.4048\/jbc.2012.15.1.119","article-title":"Medical and surgical treatment of idiopathic granulomatous lobular mastitis: A benign inflammatory disease mimicking invasive carcinoma","volume":"15","author":"Gurleyik","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1007\/s00595-011-0046-z","article-title":"Granulomatous mastitis: Is it an autoimmune disease? Diagnostic and therapeutic dilemmas","volume":"42","author":"Ozel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Surg. Today"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medcli.2021.10.001","article-title":"Granulomatous mastitis associated with erythema nodosum: A case series of 42 patients","volume":"158","author":"Penin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med. Clin."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.5152\/balkanmedj.2015.150089","article-title":"Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis Associated with Erythema Nodosum","volume":"33","author":"Kalayci","year":"2016","journal-title":"Balkan Med. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7819-11-268","article-title":"First report of granulomatous mastitis associated with Sjogren\u2019s syndrome","volume":"11","author":"Letourneux","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Surg. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.3109\/s10165-010-0363-x","article-title":"Weber-Christian disease associated with granulomatous mastitis: A variant type of Weber-Christian disease?","volume":"21","author":"Taniguchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mod. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148727","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/148727","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: An autoimmune disease?","volume":"2013","author":"Altintoprak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"109","article-title":"A clinicopathological review of 34 cases of inflammatory breast disease showing an association between Corynebacteria infection and granulomatous mastitis","volume":"35","author":"Taylor","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pathology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2004.07.013","article-title":"Isolations of Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii from a breast abscess","volume":"294","author":"Riegel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02160-06","article-title":"Corynebacterium accolens isolated from breast abscess: Possible association with granulomatous mastitis","volume":"45","author":"Ang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"99","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis associated with Corynebacterium sp. Infection","volume":"70","author":"Stary","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hawaii. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1938","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03131-15","article-title":"The Brief Case: Recurrent Granulomatous Mastitis Due to Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii","volume":"54","author":"Johnson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.54.4254","article-title":"Two Cases of Granulomatous Mastitis Caused by Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii Infection in Nulliparous Young Women with Hyperprolactinemia","volume":"54","author":"Kutsuna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2895","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00760-15","article-title":"Antimicrobial Treatment Options for Granulomatous Mastitis Caused by Corynebacterium Species","volume":"53","author":"Dobinson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.157","article-title":"The human skin microbiome","volume":"16","author":"Byrd","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1136\/jclinpath-2019-206180","article-title":"Cystic neutrophilic granulomatous mastitis: An update","volume":"73","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Schnitt, S.J., and Collins, L.C. (2017). Biopsy Interpretation of the Breast, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2208","DOI":"10.1002\/ccr3.1801","article-title":"Cystic neutrophilic granulomatous mastitis with Corynebacterium and staphylococcus mimicking breast carcinoma","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1186\/1757-1626-1-273","article-title":"Tuberculosis infection of the breast mistaken for granulomatous mastitis: A case report","volume":"1","author":"Sriram","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cases J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-6196(11)65036-2","article-title":"Sarcoidosis presenting as spiculated breast masses","volume":"75","author":"Gisvold","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000000734","article-title":"Treatment for and clinical characteristics of granulomatous mastitis","volume":"125","author":"Sheybani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surg.2019.06.030","article-title":"Re-evaluating if observation continues to be the best management of idiopathic granulomatous mastitis","volume":"166","author":"Davis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5243958","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5243958","article-title":"The Role of Establishing a Multidisciplinary Team for Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis in Improving Patient Outcomes and Spreading Awareness about Recent Disease Trends","volume":"2020","author":"Yaghan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s40477-019-00392-3","article-title":"Imaging features of granulomatous mastitis in 36 patients with new sonographic signs","volume":"23","author":"Alikhassi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2018170095","article-title":"Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis: Manifestations at Multimodality Imaging and Pitfalls","volume":"38","author":"Nanyes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Radiographics"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s13244-016-0497-2","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: A diagnostic dilemma for the breast radiologist","volume":"7","author":"Sripathi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Insights Imaging"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.11152\/mu.2013.2066.171.rfm","article-title":"Radiologic findings of idiopathic granulomatous mastitis","volume":"17","author":"Yildiz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Ultrason."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1308\/rcsann.2021.0239","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: Experience at a New York hospital","volume":"104","author":"Bhattarai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.3233\/BD-160261","article-title":"The enigma of granulomatous mastitis: A series","volume":"37","author":"Bashir","year":"2017","journal-title":"Breast Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0300060519895685","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060519895685","article-title":"Severe idiopathic granulomatous mastitis treated with systemic medication; A case report","volume":"48","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1075-122X.2005.00127.x","article-title":"The role of conservative treatment in idiopathic granulomatous mastitis","volume":"11","author":"Lai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.13300","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: Looking for the most effective therapy with the least side effects according to the severity of the disease in 374 patients in Iran","volume":"25","author":"Kaviani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"004184","article-title":"Clindamycin: An Effective Treatment for Granulomatous Mastitis Caused by Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii in a Pregnant Patient","volume":"11","author":"Abdalla","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Case Rep. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198010023031406","article-title":"Prednisone management of granulomatous mastitis","volume":"303","author":"DeHertogh","year":"1980","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.31557\/APJCP.2020.21.4.993","article-title":"Comparison of the Outcome of Low Dose and High-Dose Corticosteroid in the Treatment of Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis","volume":"21","author":"Montazer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.12415","article-title":"A Comparative Study of Conservative versus Surgical Treatment Protocols for 77 Patients with Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis","volume":"21","author":"Yabanoglu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-010-1041-6","article-title":"Corticosteroid treatment and timing of surgery in idiopathic granulomatous mastitis confusing with breast carcinoma","volume":"123","author":"Erozgen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2718","DOI":"10.1007\/s00268-015-3147-9","article-title":"Topical Steroids Are Effective in the Treatment of Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis","volume":"39","author":"Altintoprak","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1159\/000507951","article-title":"A Novel First-Line Treatment Alternative for Noncomplicated Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis: Combined Intralesional Steroid Injection with Topical Steroid Administration","volume":"16","author":"Toktas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Breast Care"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabioglu, N., Uras, C., Mutlu, H., Sezgin, D., Emiroglu, S., Dulgeroglu, O., Yilmaz, R., Tukenmez, M., Arikan, A.E., and Kara, H. (2023). Local steroid injection in severe idiopathic granulomatous mastitis as a new first-line treatment modality with promising therapeutic efficacy. Front. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1251851"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.13590","article-title":"Methotrexate-based regimen as initial treatment of patients with idiopathic granulomatous mastitis","volume":"26","author":"Haddad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breast J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surge.2021.03.001","article-title":"The effect of methotrexate monotherapy on treatment-resistant idiopathic granulomatous mastitis patients","volume":"20","author":"Mete","year":"2022","journal-title":"Surgeon"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1159\/000513879","article-title":"Low-Dose Methotrexate Use in Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis: An Alternative Treatment Method","volume":"16","author":"Kafadar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Breast Care"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1097\/XCS.0000000000001046","article-title":"Refractory and Recurrent Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis Treatment: Adaptive, Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"238","author":"Shojaeian","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Surg."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.3906\/sag-2003-93","article-title":"Treatment of idiopathic granulomatous mastitis and factors related with disease recurrence","volume":"50","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Turk. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1159\/000341388","article-title":"Combined long-term steroid and immunosuppressive treatment regimen in granulomatous mastitis","volume":"7","author":"Konan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Breast Care"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hudson-Phillips, S.P., Beynon, V., Houston, A., Cosgrove, C., Ho-Yen, C.M., Patel, K., and Tang, S. (2023). Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis in pregnancy: A case report on a new management approach using azathioprine and allopurinol. AME Surg. J., 3.","DOI":"10.21037\/asj-22-8"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1093\/qjmed\/hct040","article-title":"Long-term outcome in idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: A western multicentre study","volume":"106","author":"Neel","year":"2013","journal-title":"QJM"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s40199-023-00501-y","article-title":"Imiquimod as a new treatment in refractory idiopathic granulomatous mastitis: Report of two cases","volume":"32","author":"Alipour","year":"2024","journal-title":"Daru"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1159\/000360926","article-title":"Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis: Comparison of Wide Local Excision with or without Corticosteroid Therapy","volume":"9","author":"Akcan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Breast Care"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1097\/SAP.0b013e3181a20cae","article-title":"The Surgical Management of Granulomatous Mastitis","volume":"64","author":"Yau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Plast. Surg."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2017.0030","article-title":"Treatments for Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"12","author":"Lei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1159\/000503602","article-title":"Comparison of Conservative versus Surgical Treatment Protocols in Treating Idiopathic Granulomatous Mastitis: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"15","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breast Care"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1159\/000501498","article-title":"Different Treatments for Granulomatous Lobular Mastitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"15","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breast Care"}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/16\/19\/3387\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:10:00Z","timestamp":1760112600000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/16\/19\/3387"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers16193387"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers16193387","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]]}}}