{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T08:46:44Z","timestamp":1790412404326,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,28]],"date-time":"2024-12-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education","award":["NRF-2020R1G1A1009137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2020R1G1A1009137"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Cystoscopy is necessary for diagnosing bladder cancer, but it has limitations in identifying ambiguous lesions, such as carcinoma in situ (CIS), which leads to a high recurrence rate of bladder cancer. With the significant advancements in deep learning in the medical field, several studies have explored its application in cystoscopy. This study aimed to utilize the VGG19 and Deeplab v3+ deep learning models to classify and segment cystoscope images, respectively. Methods: We classified cystoscope images obtained from 772 patients based on morphology (normal, papillary, flat, mixed) and biopsy results (normal, Ta, T1, T2, CIS, etc.). Experienced urologists annotated and labeled the lesion areas and image categories. The classification model for bladder cancer lesion, annotated with pathological results, was developed using VGG19 with an additional fully connected layer, utilizing sparse categorical cross-entropy as the loss function. The Deeplab v3+ model was used for segmenting each morphological type of bladder cancer in the cystoscope images, employing the dice coefficient loss function. The classification model was evaluated using validation accuracy and correlation with biopsy results, while the segmentation model was assessed using the Intersection over Union (IoU) combined with binary accuracy. Results: The dataset was split into training and validation sets with a 4:1 ratio. The VGG19 classification model achieved an accuracy score of 0.912. The Deeplab v3+ segmentation model achieved an IoU of 0.833 and a binary accuracy of 0.951. Visual analysis revealed a high similarity between the lesions identified by Deeplab v3+ and those labeled by experts. Conclusions: In this study, we applied two deep learning models using well-annotated datasets of cystoscopic images. Both VGG19 and Deeplab v3+ demonstrated high performance in classification and segmentation, respectively. These models can serve as valuable tools for bladder cancer research and may aid in the diagnosis of bladder cancer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17010057","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]],"date-time":"2024-12-31T14:21:12Z","timestamp":1735654872000},"page":"57","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Artificial Intelligence-Based Classification and Segmentation of Bladder Cancer in Cystoscope Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Won Ku","family":"Hwang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7393-2936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seon Beom","family":"Jo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Da Eun","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1233-5951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sun Tae","family":"Ahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mi Mi","family":"Oh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hong Seok","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9031-9845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Du Geon","family":"Moon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0995-6947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Insung","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8089-7396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zepa","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2228-0640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jong Wook","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 08308, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21834","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. 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