{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T08:45:51Z","timestamp":1789721151163,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740700800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of this review is to provide an update on the imaging triage, safety considerations, and cancer-imaging features of common and uncommon gynecological tumors during pregnancy. Clinical examination can be inconclusive, especially for the evaluation of intra-abdominal diseases since symptoms related to cancer such as fatigue, vomiting, or nausea overlap with common pregnancy-associated symptoms. Delayed pregnancy, advanced maternal age, and improvements in diagnostic imaging in developed countries have increased the incidence of cancer diagnosis in gravid populations. Non-invasive diagnostic imaging has a central role in the initial diagnosis and management of pregnancy tumors. Sonography is the first modality for the abdominal evaluation of gravid patients because it is widely available, low cost, and lacks adverse effects on the mother and fetus. MR imaging is considered the imaging modality of choice for diagnosis and staging of gynecologic cancer during pregnancy due to its larger imaging field of view, better reproducibility, and excellent soft tissue contrast. Moreover, whole-body diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) has been proposed for the oncologic staging of pregnant patients; however, large prospective studies are needed to support its clinical implementation. Gynecological cancer diagnosed during pregnancy requires accurate diagnosis and staging to determine optimal treatment based on gestational age, and therefore multidisciplinary team collaboration is pivotal.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17050838","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T10:12:33Z","timestamp":1740737553000},"page":"838","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Review of the Imaging Modalities in the Gynecological Neoplasms During Pregnancy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Gabriele","family":"Masselli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiology Department, Umberto I Hospital, Sapienza University, Via del Policlinico 155, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charis","family":"Bourgioti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Aretaieon Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12013","DOI":"10.1200\/jco.2010.28.15_suppl.e12013","article-title":"Cancer-related maternal mortality","volume":"28","author":"Harvey","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2020.03.015","article-title":"Gynecologic cancer in pregnancy","volume":"157","author":"Korenaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.5468\/ogs.2013.56.5.289","article-title":"Gynecologic malignancy in pregnancy","volume":"56","author":"Ji","year":"2013","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bourgioti, C., Konidari, M., and Moulopoulos, L.A. (2023). Manifestations of Ovarian Cancer in Relation to Other Pelvic Diseases by MRI. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15072106"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franciszek D\u0142uski, D., Mierzy\u0144ski, R., Poniedzia\u0142ek-Czajkowska, E., and Leszczy\u0144ska-Gorzelak, B. (2020). Ovarian Cancer and Pregnancy-A Current Problem in Perinatal Medicine: A Comprehensive Review. Cancers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12123795"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2018.02.006","article-title":"A review on pregnancy complicated by ovarian epithelial and non-epithelial malignant tumors: Diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives","volume":"12","author":"Boussios","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1097\/OGX.0000000000000407","article-title":"Gynecologic Malignancies in Pregnancy: Balancing Fetal Risks with Oncologic Safety","volume":"72","author":"Cordeiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Surv."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1097\/00006254-199602000-00022","article-title":"Cancer in pregnancy: A review of the literature. Part I","volume":"51","author":"Antonelli","year":"1996","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Surv."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S348","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-8049(11)70199-X","article-title":"Cancer and pregnancy: What should we know about the management with systemic treatment of pregnant women with cancer?","volume":"47","author":"Pavlidis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.suronc.2011.06.002","article-title":"Cancer and pregnancy: A comprehensive review","volume":"20","author":"Voulgaris","year":"2011","journal-title":"Surg. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2002-0279","article-title":"Coexistence of pregnancy and malignancy","volume":"7","author":"Pavlidis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vi160","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdt199","article-title":"Cancer, pregnancy and fertility: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up","volume":"24","author":"Peccatori","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2012.10.026","article-title":"Cancer in pregnancy: A survey of current clinical practice","volume":"167","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"International Commission on Radiological Protection (2000). Pregnancy and medical radiation. Ann. ICRP, 30, 1\u201343."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1522","article-title":"Maternal-fetal in vivo imaging: A combined PET and MRI study","volume":"44","author":"Benveniste","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1238","article-title":"Pattern of uptake and excretion of (18)F-FDG in the lactating breast","volume":"42","author":"Hicks","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(05)70169-8","article-title":"Radiotherapy during pregnancy: Fact and fiction","volume":"6","author":"Kal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.70.830.9135438","article-title":"Risk of childhood cancer from fetal irradiation","volume":"70","author":"Doll","year":"1997","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Colletti Patrick, M. (2012). PET-CT in the Pregnant Patient, Image Wisely."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s002470050334","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging of the fetus","volume":"28","author":"Garel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pediatr. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.12126","article-title":"Association between MRI exposure during pregnancy and fetal and childhood outcomes","volume":"316","author":"Vermeulen","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1862","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-017-5126-z","article-title":"Feasibility of whole-body diffusion-weighted MRI for detection of primary tumour, nodal and distant metastases in women with cancer during pregnancy: A pilot study","volume":"28","author":"Han","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1067\/mob.2001.114867","article-title":"Obstetrical deliveries associated with maternal malignancy in California, 1992 through 1997","volume":"184","author":"Smith","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1067\/S0002-9378(03)00537-4","article-title":"Cancer associated with obstetric delivery: Results of linkage with the California cancer registry","volume":"189","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"207","article-title":"Outcome of pregnancies after cold-knife conization of the uterine cervix during pregnancy","volume":"23","author":"Demeter","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gynaecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"598","article-title":"Cervical cancer in pregnancy: Reporting on planned delay in therapy","volume":"82","author":"Duggan","year":"1993","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5425","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.2435","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of cervical cancer in pregnant women","volume":"8","author":"Beharee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1097\/00006254-200010000-00022","article-title":"Management of stage I cervical cancer in pregnancy","volume":"55","author":"Nguyen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Surv."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb03809.x","article-title":"Cancer and pregnancy","volume":"943","author":"Creasman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"400","article-title":"Progress in diagnosis and treatment of pregnancy complicated with cervical cancer","volume":"25","author":"Shiping","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pract. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"64","article-title":"The effect of pregnancy with cervical cancer on mother and child and the principle of diagnosis and treatment","volume":"17","author":"Meihao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Mod. Obstetr. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(97)70190-X","article-title":"Management of low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions during pregnancy","volume":"177","author":"Jain","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2012.02.019","article-title":"Value and feasibility of LLETZ procedures for pregnant women with suspected high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and microinvasive cervical cancer","volume":"118","author":"Schaefer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2005.03.002","article-title":"Cervical neoplasia during pregnancy: Diagnosis, management and prognosis","volume":"19","author":"Vergote","year":"2005","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1097\/01.AOG.0000216015.15415.5f","article-title":"Abdominal radical trachelectomy during pregnancy to preserve pregnancy and fertility","volume":"108","author":"Smith","year":"2006","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60829-5","article-title":"Gynaecological cancers in pregnancy","volume":"379","author":"Morice","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1097\/IGC.0000000000001218","article-title":"The Safety and Effectiveness of Abdominal Radical Trachelectomy for Early-Stage Cervical Cancer During Pregnancy","volume":"28","author":"Yoshihara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0004-8666.2003.00151.x","article-title":"Gynaecological malignancies in pregnancy: A review","volume":"43","author":"Oehler","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinimag.2012.04.004","article-title":"Management of cervical cancer detected during pregnancy: Role of magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"37","author":"Balleyguier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diii.2021.05.003","article-title":"Imaging during pregnancy: What the radiologist needs to know","volume":"102","author":"Bourgioti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diagn. Interv. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behtash, N., Karimi Zarchi, M., Modares Gilani, M., Ghaemmaghami, F., Mousavi, A., and Ghotbizadeh, F. (2008). Ovarian carcinoma associated with pregnancy: A clinicopathologic analysis of 23 cases and review of the literature. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2393-8-3"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s13048-022-00966-6","article-title":"Decidualized ovarian endometrioma mimicking malignancy in pregnancy: A case report and literature review","volume":"15","author":"Yin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ovarian Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e79","DOI":"10.3802\/jgo.2018.29.e79","article-title":"Teenage pregnancy complicated by primary invasive ovarian cancer: Association for oncologic outcome","volume":"29","author":"Blake","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gore.2023.101163","article-title":"Luteoma of pregnancy masquerading as a granulosa cell tumor","volume":"46","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2015.10.015","article-title":"Ovarian cysts and cancer in pregnancy","volume":"33","author":"Mukhopadhyay","year":"2016","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2005.10.022","article-title":"Adnexal masses in pregnancy: How often are they malignant?","volume":"101","author":"Leiserowitz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0412.2002.810313.x","article-title":"Ovarian carcinoma associated with pregnancy. A review of 9 cases","volume":"81","author":"Rahman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1136\/ijgc-00009577-200601000-00002","article-title":"Ovarian cancer in pregnancy: A clinicopathologic analysis of 22 cases and review of the literature","volume":"16","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2009.23.2801","article-title":"Cancer during pregnancy: An analysis of 215 patients emphasizing the obstetrical and the neonatal outcomes","volume":"28","author":"Heyns","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1097\/00003081-200609000-00009","article-title":"Evaluation and management of adnexal masses during pregnancy","volume":"49","author":"Giuntoli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2013.12.020","article-title":"Clinical management of epithelial ovarian cancer during pregnancy","volume":"50","author":"Grimm","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0035-1549216","article-title":"Adnexal mass during pregnancy: A review","volume":"32","author":"Webb","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1002\/ijgo.12621","article-title":"Cancer in pregnancy","volume":"143","author":"Botha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10841","DOI":"10.2147\/CMAR.S271806","article-title":"Malignant Ovarian Tumors During Pregnancy: A Multicenter Retrospective Analysis","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Manag. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2005.02.011","article-title":"Management of an advanced ovarian cancer at 15 weeks of gestation: Case report and literature review","volume":"97","author":"Ferrandina","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2011.01.050","article-title":"Evaluation and management of adnexal mass in pregnancy","volume":"205","author":"Hoover","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.11138\/jpm\/2016.10.1.008","article-title":"Management, prognosis and reproductive outcomes of borderline ovarian tumor relapse during pregnancy: From diagnosis to potential treatment options","volume":"10","author":"Cosentino","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Prenat. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2014.07.047","article-title":"Feto-maternal outcomes of pregnancy complicated by ovarian malignant germ cell tumor: A systematic review of literature","volume":"181","author":"Kodama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1097\/00001703-199602000-00004","article-title":"Prognosis and management of borderline tumours of the ovary","volume":"8","author":"Kaern","year":"1996","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a116428","article-title":"Characteristics relating to ovarian cancer risk: Collaborative analysis of 12 US case-control studies. III. Epithelial tumors of low malignant potential in white women. Collaborative Ovarian Cancer Group","volume":"136","author":"Harris","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/0090-8258(91)90103-C","article-title":"Evaluation of surgical staging in stage I low malignant potential ovarian tumors","volume":"40","author":"Snider","year":"1991","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(19930301)71:5<1810::AID-CNCR2820710516>3.0.CO;2-V","article-title":"A retrospective study of 370 borderline tumors of the ovary treated at the Norwegian Radium Hospital from 1970 to 1982. A review of clinicopathologic features and treatment modalities","volume":"71","author":"Kaern","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/0046-8177(91)90205-4","article-title":"Ovarian surface epithelial-stromal tumors","volume":"22","author":"Bell","year":"1991","journal-title":"Hum. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2008.07.1716","article-title":"Feasibility, safety, and efficacy of conservative laparoscopic treatment of borderline ovarian tumors","volume":"92","author":"Tinelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdr452","article-title":"Borderline ovarian tumors diagnosed during pregnancy exhibit a high incidence of aggressive features: Results of a French multicenter study","volume":"23","author":"Fauvet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2015.01.010","article-title":"Feto-maternal outcomes of pregnancy complicated by epithelial ovarian cancer: A systematic review of literature","volume":"186","author":"Blake","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1136\/ijgc-2021-002565","article-title":"ESGO\/ISUOG\/IOTA\/ESGE Consensus Statement on pre-operative diagnosis of ovarian tumors","volume":"31","author":"Timmerman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1097\/GRF.0b013e3181bea9d7","article-title":"Adnexal masses in pregnancy","volume":"52","author":"Schwartz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"c6839","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.c6839","article-title":"Simple ultrasound rules to distinguish between benign and malignant adnexal masses before surgery: Prospective validation by IOTA group","volume":"341","author":"Timmerman","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2022.11.1291","article-title":"Adnexal masses during pregnancy: Diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis","volume":"228","author":"Cathcart","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0960-7692.2001.00500.x","article-title":"Comparison of \u2018pattern recognition\u2019 and logistic regression models for discrimination between benign and malignant pelvic masses: A prospective cross validation","volume":"18","author":"Valentin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2017.05.024","article-title":"Complex US adnexal masses during pregnancy: Is pelvic MR imaging accurate for characterization?","volume":"93","author":"Fedida","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1053\/j.sult.2011.10.004","article-title":"Adnexal masses in pregnancy","volume":"33","author":"Yacobozzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Ultrasound CT MR"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.07.3509","article-title":"MRI of Adnexal Masses in Pregnancy","volume":"191","author":"Telischak","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3485","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-013-2987-7","article-title":"Acute abdominal and pelvic pain in pregnancy: ESUR recommendations","volume":"23","author":"Masselli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1919896","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.19896","article-title":"Ovarian-Adnexal Reporting Data System Magnetic Resonance Imaging (O-RADS MRI) Score for Risk Stratification of Sonographically Indeterminate Adnexal Masses","volume":"3","author":"Poncelet","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"2058460117727315","article-title":"Efficacy of oral contrast agents for upper gastrointestinal signal suppression in MRCP: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"6","author":"Frisch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Radiol. Open."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1177\/08465371221121738","article-title":"Ovarian-Adnexal Reporting and Data System for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (O-RADS MRI): Genesis and Future Directions","volume":"74","author":"Nougaret","year":"2023","journal-title":"Can. Assoc. Radiol. J."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panico, C., Bottazzi, S., Russo, L., Avesani, G., Celli, V., D\u2019erme, L., Cipriani, A., Mascilini, F., Fagotti, A., and Scambia, G. (2023). Prediction of the Risk of Malignancy of Adnexal Masses during Pregnancy Comparing Subjective Assessment and Non-Contrast MRI Score (NCMS) in Radiologists with Different Expertise. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15215138"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dep089","article-title":"Decidualized ovarian endometriosis in pregnancy: A challenging diagnostic entity","volume":"24","author":"Barbieri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1097\/RCT.0b013e3181238362","article-title":"Magnetic resonance manifestations of decidualized endometriomas during pregnancy","volume":"32","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1002\/uog.6325","article-title":"Hyperreactio luteinalis in a spontaneously conceived singleton pregnancy","volume":"33","author":"Amant","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.7863\/jum.2005.24.9.1289","article-title":"Decidualization of ovarian endometriosis during pregnancy mimicking malignancy","volume":"24","author":"Sammour","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Ultrasound Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1097\/RCT.0000000000000136","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging manifestations of decidualized endometriotic cysts: Comparative study with ovarian cancers associated with endometriotic cysts","volume":"38","author":"Morisawa","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2016.03.009","article-title":"Computed diffusion-weighted imaging for differentiating decidualized endometrioma from ovarian cancer","volume":"85","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1148\/radiographics.19.5.g99se131179","article-title":"Uterine leiomyomas: Histopathologic features, MR imaging findings, differential diagnosis, and treatment","volume":"19","author":"Murase","year":"1999","journal-title":"Radiographics"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2008.02.014","article-title":"Risk analysis of torsion and malignancy for adnexal masses during pregnancy","volume":"91","author":"Yen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192S","DOI":"10.1097\/01.AOG.0000447221.83324.5d","article-title":"Adnexal masses in pregnancy: Does magnitude matter?","volume":"123","author":"Gholson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcl.2019.10.008","article-title":"Imaging of Gynecologic Malignancy in a Reproductive Age Female: Cancer During Pregnancy","volume":"58","author":"Bourgioti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Radiol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-023-03809-0","article-title":"The radiologist\u2019s role in a multidisciplinary approach to cancer in pregnancy","volume":"48","author":"Harwin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Abdom. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magro, G., Angelico, G., Michal, M., Broggi, G., Zannoni, G.F., Covello, R., Marletta, S., Salvatorelli, L., and Parenti, R. (2021). The Wide Morphological Spectrum of Deep (Aggressive) Angiomyxoma of the Vulvo-Vaginal Region: A Clinicopathologic Study of 36 Cases, including Recurrent Tumors. Diagnostics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11081360"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cicogna, S., Dellino, M., Miano, S.T., Magazzino, F., Domenici, L., Pignata, S., Mangili, G., and Cormio, G. (2023). Aggressive Angiomyxoma of the Lower Female Genital Tract in Pregnancy: A Review of the MITO Rare Tumors Group. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15133403"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2004.07.051","article-title":"Aggressive angiomyxoma of the vulva","volume":"95","author":"Ribaldone","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.4103\/JLP.JLP_179_17","article-title":"Aggressive angiomyxoma in pregnancy: A rare and commonly misdiagnosed entity","volume":"10","author":"Malukani","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Lab. Physicians"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2009.05.035","article-title":"A case of multi-modal managed vulval aggressive angiomyxoma diagnosed before conception and monitored during pregnancy","volume":"115","author":"Aye","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Espejo-Reina, M.P., Prieto-Moreno, M., De-Miguel-Blanc, M., P\u00e9rez-Mart\u00ednez, D.M., Jim\u00e9nez-L\u00f3pez, J.S., and Mon\u00eds-Rodr\u00edguez, S. (2022). Genital Prolapse in Pregnant Woman as a Presentation of Aggressive Angiomyxoma: Case Report and Literature Review. Medicina, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina58010107"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-71274-9_7","article-title":"Cervical and endometrial cancer during pregnancy","volume":"178","author":"Kehoe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Recent Results Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0b013e318197bbaf","article-title":"Prevalence of uterine leiomyomas in the first trimester of pregnancy: An ultrasound-screening study","volume":"113","author":"Laughlin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2011.08.002","article-title":"Screening for uterine tumours","volume":"26","author":"Coosemans","year":"2012","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1215428","article-title":"Pregnancy and genital sarcoma: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"26","author":"Matsuo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/S0730-725X(00)00177-6","article-title":"Chorioangioma: Antenatal diagnosis with fast MR imaging","volume":"18","author":"Kawamotoa","year":"2000","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-012-9929-8","article-title":"MR imaging of the placenta: What a radiologist should know","volume":"38","author":"Masselli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Abdom. Imaging"}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/5\/838\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:44:09Z","timestamp":1760028249000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/5\/838"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers17050838"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers17050838","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]}}}