{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T03:43:25Z","timestamp":1789875805843,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]],"date-time":"2025-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746662400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001826","name":"Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10070012010002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10070012010002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Purpose: This study aims to create a deep learning (DL) model capable of accurately delineating the ventricles, and by extension, the periventricular space (PVS), following the 2021 EPTN Neuro-Oncology Atlas guidelines on T1-weighted contrast-enhanced MRI scans (T1CE). The performance of this DL model was quantitatively and qualitatively compared with an off-the-shelf model. Materials and Methods: An nnU-Net was trained for ventricle segmentation using both CT and T1CE MRI images from 78 patients. Its performance was compared to that of a publicly available pretrained segmentation model, SynthSeg. The evaluation was conducted on both internal (N = 18) and external (n = 18) test sets, with each consisting of paired CT and T1CE MRI images and expert-delineated ground truths (GTs). Segmentation accuracy was assessed using the volumetric Dice Similarity Coefficient (DSC), 95th percentile Hausdorff distance (HD95), surface DSC, and added path length (APL). Additionally, a local evaluation of ventricle segmentations quantified differences between manual and automatic segmentations across both test sets. All segmentations were scored by radiotherapy technicians for clinical acceptability using a 4-point Likert scale. Results: The nnU-Net significantly outperformed the SynthSeg model on the internal test dataset in terms of median [range] DSC, 0.93 [0.86\u20130.95] vs. 0.85 [0.67\u20130.91], HD95, 0.9 [0.7\u20132.5] mm vs. 2.2 [1.7\u20134.8] mm, surface DSC, 0.97 [0.90\u20130.98] vs. 0.84 [0.70\u20130.89], and APL, 876 [407\u20131298] mm vs. 2809 [2311\u20133622] mm, all with p &lt; 0.001. No significant differences in these metrics were found in the external test set. However clinical ratings favored nnU-Net segmentations on the internal and external test sets. In addition, the nnU-Net had higher clinical ratings than the GT delineation on the internal and external test set. Conclusions: The nnU-Net model outperformed the SynthSeg model on the internal dataset in both segmentation metrics and clinician ratings. While segmentation metrics showed no significant differences between the models on the external set, clinician ratings favored nnU-Net, suggesting enhanced clinical acceptability. This suggests that nnU-Net could contribute to more time-efficient and streamlined radiotherapy planning workflows.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17101598","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]],"date-time":"2025-05-08T06:47:15Z","timestamp":1746686835000},"page":"1598","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Deep Learning for Automated Ventricle and Periventricular Space Segmentation on CT and T1CE MRI in Neuro-Oncology Patients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Mart","family":"Wubbels","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marvin","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Mental Health and Neuroscience Research Institute (MHeNs), Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jelmer M.","family":"Wolterink","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Mathematics, Technical Medical Centre, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wouter","family":"van Elmpt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6155-1565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inge","family":"Compter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Hofstede","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikolina E.","family":"Birimac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Femke","family":"Vaassen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kati","family":"Palmgren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5860-8981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hendrik H. G.","family":"Hansen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6734-2345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiska L. van der","family":"Weide","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 AP Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2349-7369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charlotte L.","family":"Brouwer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 AP Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5040-998X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miranda C. A.","family":"Kramer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 AP Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1917-6279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dani\u00eblle B. P.","family":"Eekers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catharina M. L.","family":"Zegers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, 6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1080\/0284186X.2019.1631477","article-title":"Predicting Late Magnetic Resonance Image Changes in Glioma Patients After Proton Therapy","volume":"58","author":"Eulitz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrobp.2020.03.013","article-title":"Late Contrast Enhancing Brain Lesions in Proton-Treated Patients with Low-Grade Glioma: Clinical Evidence for Increased Periventricular Sensitivity and Variable RBE","volume":"107","author":"Bahn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. 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