{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T19:06:42Z","timestamp":1793387202112,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":165,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]],"date-time":"2025-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753920000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC)","award":["23108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23108"]}]},{"name":"South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC)","award":["138139"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["138139"]}]},{"name":"South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC)","award":["57029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["57029"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation (NRF)","award":["23108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23108"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation (NRF)","award":["138139"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["138139"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation (NRF)","award":["57029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["57029"]}]},{"name":"SAMRC Division of Research Capacity Development","award":["23108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23108"]}]},{"name":"SAMRC Division of Research Capacity Development","award":["138139"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["138139"]}]},{"name":"SAMRC Division of Research Capacity Development","award":["57029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["57029"]}]},{"name":"South African Medical Research Council Clinician Researcher Program (SAMRC-CRP)","award":["23108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23108"]}]},{"name":"South African Medical Research Council Clinician Researcher Program (SAMRC-CRP)","award":["138139"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["138139"]}]},{"name":"South African Medical Research Council Clinician Researcher Program (SAMRC-CRP)","award":["57029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["57029"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Grand Challenges through the Cancer Research UK (CRUK)","award":["23108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23108"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Grand Challenges through the Cancer Research UK (CRUK)","award":["138139"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["138139"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Grand Challenges through the Cancer Research UK (CRUK)","award":["57029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["57029"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cancer disparities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) arise from multifaceted interactions between environmental exposures, infectious agents, and systemic inequities, such as limited access to care. The exposome, a framework encompassing the totality of non-genetic exposures throughout life, offers a powerful lens for understanding these disparities. In LMICs, populations are disproportionately affected by air and water pollution, occupational hazards, and oncogenic infections, including human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and neglected tropical diseases, such as schistosomiasis. These infectious agents contribute to increased cancer susceptibility and poor outcomes, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Moreover, climate change, food insecurity, and barriers to healthcare access exacerbate these risks. This review adopts a population-level exposome approach to explore how environmental and infectious exposures intersect with genetic, epigenetic, and immune mechanisms to influence cancer incidence and progression in LMICs. We highlight the critical pathways linking chronic exposure and inflammation to tumor development and evaluate strategies such as HPV and HBV vaccination, antiretroviral therapy, and environmental regulation. Special attention is given to tools such as exposome-wide association studies (ExWASs), which offer promise for exposure surveillance, early detection, and public health policy. By integrating exposomic insights into national health systems, especially in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia, LMICs can advance equitable cancer prevention and control strategies. A holistic, exposome-informed strategy is essential for reducing global cancer disparities and improving outcomes in vulnerable populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17152537","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T08:51:41Z","timestamp":1754038301000},"page":"2537","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["The Exposome Perspective: Environmental and Infectious Agents as Drivers of Cancer Disparities in Low- and Middle-Income Countries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8012-3646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zodwa","family":"Dlamini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"},{"name":"Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, School of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Alaouna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3622-321X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tebogo","family":"Marutha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0373-9973","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zilungile","family":"Mkhize-Kwitshana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Science & Environmental Sciences, Science Campus, University of South Africa, Florida 1709, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Langanani","family":"Mbodi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Gynecologic Oncology Unit, Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital, University of the Witwatersrand, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0914-5946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nkhensani","family":"Chauke-Malinga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Steve Biko Academic Hospital University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0028, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thifhelimbil E.","family":"Luvhengo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital, University of the Witwatersrand, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5050-7350","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rahaba","family":"Marima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodney","family":"Hull","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8121-5617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda","family":"Skepu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Next Generation Health, Division 1, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Meiring Naude Road, Brummeria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6400-8867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monde","family":"Ntwasa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, School of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raquel","family":"Duarte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Translational Research, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3060-5572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Botle Precious","family":"Damane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Faculty of Health Sciences, Steve Biko Academic Hospital, University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0028, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5588-3221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benny","family":"Mosoane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Services, Tshwane Academic Division, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sikhumbuzo","family":"Mbatha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Faculty of Health Sciences, Steve Biko Academic Hospital, University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0028, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8991-6060","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Boitumelo","family":"Phakathi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, 719 Umbilo Road, Durban 4001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moshawa","family":"Khaba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomical Pathology, Dr George Mukhari Academic Laboratory, National Health Laboratory Services, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Ga-Rankuwa 0208, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1006-912X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramakwana Christinah","family":"Chokwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Engineering, and Technology, University of South Africa, Florida Park, Johannesburg 1709, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jenny","family":"Edge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Charlotte Maxeke Hospital, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3179-8169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zukile","family":"Mbita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of Limpopo, Sovenga 0727, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Khanyile","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Medical Oncology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Steve Biko Academic Hospital, University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0028, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1236-842X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thulo","family":"Molefi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Precision Oncology Research Unit (PORU), DSI\/NRF SARChI Chair in Precision Oncology and Cancer Prevention (POCP), Pan African Cancer Research Institute (PACRI), University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0002, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Medical Oncology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Steve Biko Academic Hospital, University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0028, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(22)00270-4","article-title":"Cancer in sub-Saharan Africa in 2020: A review of current estimates of the national burden, data gaps, and future needs","volume":"23","author":"Bray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-023-01962-y","article-title":"Addressing cancer care inequities in sub-Saharan Africa: Current challenges and proposed solutions","volume":"22","author":"Omotoso","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Equity Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larsen, K., Rydz, E., and Peters, C.E. (2023). Inequalities in Environmental Cancer Risk and Carcinogen Exposures: A Scoping Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20095718"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvr.2024.200289","article-title":"The impact of DNA tumor viruses in low-to-middle income countries (LMICS): A literature review","volume":"18","author":"Guzha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Tumour Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hotez, P.J., and Kamath, A. (2009). Neglected Tropical Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: Review of Their Prevalence, Distribution, and Disease Burden. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000412"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e40","DOI":"10.1017\/exp.2020.38","article-title":"Helminth infection-induced carcinogenesis: Spectrometric insights from the liver flukes, Opisthorchis and Fasciola","volume":"1","author":"Gouveia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Results"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"osae008","DOI":"10.1093\/exposome\/osae008","article-title":"An evolutionary perspective for the exposome","volume":"4","author":"Vineis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exposome"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2022.01.016","article-title":"A tipping point in cancer epidemiology: Embracing a life course exposomic framework","volume":"8","author":"Wright","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-05-0456","article-title":"Complementing the Genome with an \u201cExposome\u201d: The Outstanding Challenge of Environmental Exposure Measurement in Molecular Epidemiology","volume":"14","author":"Wild","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerken, J., Vincent, G.T., Zapata, D., Barron, I.G., and Zapata, I. (2024). Comprehensive assessment of pesticide use patterns and increased cancer risk. Front. Cancer Control Soc., 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcacs.2024.1368086"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109974","article-title":"Corrigendum to \u201cfine particulate air pollution and human mortality: 25+ years of cohort studies\u201d [environ. Res. 183 (2020) 108924]","volume":"191","author":"Pope","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radfard, M., Hashemi, H., Baghapour, M.A., Samaei, M.R., Yunesian, M., Soleimani, H., and Azhdarpoor, A. (2023). Prediction of human health risk and disability-adjusted life years induced by heavy metals exposure through drinking water in fars province, Iran. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-46262-1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2286","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12731","article-title":"The aflatoxin situation in Africa: Systematic literature review","volume":"20","author":"Meijer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2058","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2020.11754","article-title":"Cervical cancer in low and middle-income countries (Review)","volume":"20","author":"Hull","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizzo, G.E.M., Cabibbo, G., and Crax\u00ec, A. (2022). Hepatitis B Virus-Associated Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14050986"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shirani, M., Pakzad, R., Haddadi, M.H., Akrami, S., Asadi, A., Kazemian, H., Moradi, M., Kaviar, V.H., Zomorodi, A.R., and Khoshnood, S. (2023). The global prevalence of gastric cancer in Helicobacter pylori-infected individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect. Dis., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-023-08504-5"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17588","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.4c05751","article-title":"Dietary Nitrosamines from Processed Meat Intake as Drivers of the Fecal Excretion of Nitrosocompounds","volume":"72","author":"Zapico","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-021-01316-8","article-title":"The cancer metabolic reprogramming and immune response","volume":"20","author":"Xia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1007\/s43994-024-00166-6","article-title":"Helicobacter pylori infection in Africa: Comprehensive insight into its pathogenesis, management, and future perspectives","volume":"11","author":"Emmanuel","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3379","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-46265-0","article-title":"Diet changes due to urbanization in South Africa are linked to microbiome and metabolome signatures of Westernization and colorectal cancer","volume":"15","author":"Ramaboli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(18)30288-2","article-title":"Association of BMI with overall and cause-specific mortality: A population-based cohort study of 3\u00b76 million adults in the UK","volume":"6","author":"Bhaskaran","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"100543","article-title":"Arsenic contamination in rice and drinking water: An insight on human cognitive function","volume":"17","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Quintero Santofimio, V., Amaral, A.F.S., and Feary, J. (2024). Occupational exposures in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review. PLOS Glob. Public Health, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003888"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rai, R., El-Zaemey, S., Dorji, N., Rai, B.D., and Fritschi, L. (2021). Exposure to Occupational Hazards Among Health Care Workers in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Scoping Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18052603"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-7678-9_1","article-title":"Epigenetic Mechanisms as an Interface Between the Environment and Genome","volume":"903","author":"Herceg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Avis, W., and Bartington, S. (2020). Monitoring Air Quality in Low- Income and Lower Middle-Income Countries, The Institute of Development Studies and Partner Organisations."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimanya, M.E., Routledge, M.N., Mpolya, E., Ezekiel, C.N., Shirima, C.P., and Gong, Y.Y. (2021). Estimating the risk of aflatoxin-induced liver cancer in Tanzania based on biomarker data. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0247281"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-019-0496-0","article-title":"Biomass fuel as a risk factor for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Okello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473974X18777238","DOI":"10.1177\/2473974X18777238","article-title":"Thyroid Cancer and Iodine Deficiency Status: A 10-Year Review at a Single Cancer Center in Tanzania","volume":"2","author":"Sakafu","year":"2018","journal-title":"OTO Open"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044068","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ad376b","article-title":"Substantial increase in population exposure to multiple environmental burdens in sub-Saharan Africa (2000\u20132019)","volume":"19","author":"Sikarwar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Echendu, A.J., Okafor, H.F., and Iyiola, O. (2022). Air Pollution, Climate Change and Ecosystem Health in the Niger Delta. Soc. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci11110525"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nriagu, J., Udofia, E., Ekong, I., and Ebuk, G. (2016). Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13030346"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10739","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b02602","article-title":"Air Quality Impact of Diffuse and Inefficient Combustion Emissions in Africa (DICE-Africa)","volume":"50","author":"Marais","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oghenetega, O.B., Okunlola, M.A., Ana, G.R.E.E., Morhason-Bello, O., and Ojengbede, O.A. (2022). Exposure to oil pollution and maternal outcomes: The Niger Delta prospective cohort study. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0263495"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yakubu, O. (2017). Addressing Environmental Health Problems in Ogoniland Through Implementation of United Nations Environment Program Recommendations: Environmental Management Strategies. Environments, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments4020028"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19520","DOI":"10.3402\/gha.v6i0.19520","article-title":"Occupational respiratory diseases in the South African mining industry","volume":"6","author":"Nelson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Health Action"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schapira, J.S., Bolhar, R., Master, S., and Wilson, A.H. (2023). Mineralogical, Petrological and Geochemical Characterisation of Chrysotile, Amosite and Crocidolite Asbestos Mine Waste from Southern Africa in Context of Risk Assessment and Rehabilitation. Minerals, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202310.0277.v1"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1108\/TQM-02-2023-0044","article-title":"Analysis of the relationship among industry 4.0 technologies, sustainable manufacturing practices and organizational sustainable performance using structural equation modelling","volume":"37","author":"Harikannan","year":"2023","journal-title":"TQM J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-017-0272-y","article-title":"Household air pollution from cooking and risk of adverse health and birth outcomes in Bangladesh: A nationwide population-based study","volume":"16","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Longobardi, P., Montenegro, A., Beltrami, H., and Eby, M. (2016). Deforestation Induced Climate Change: Effects of Spatial Scale. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0153357"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.14207\/ejsd.2020.v9n2p224","article-title":"REDD+: An Analysis of Initiatives in East Africa Amidst Increasing Deforestation","volume":"9","author":"Bamwesigye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-017-0598-7","article-title":"Lifestyle and Income-Related Inequality in Health in South Africa","volume":"16","author":"Mukong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Equity Health"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, F., Ogundiran, T., Hou, N., Ndom, P., Gakwaya, A., Jombwe, J., Morhason-Bello, I., Adebamowo, C., Ademola, A., and Ojengbede, O. (2014). Alcohol Consumption and Breast Cancer Risk Among Women in Three Sub-Saharan African Countries. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0106908"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molina-Montes, E., Salamanca-Fern\u00e1ndez, E., Garcia-Villanova, B., and S\u00e1nchez, M.J. (2020). The Impact of Plant-Based Dietary Patterns on Cancer-Related Outcomes: A Rapid Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12072010"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2006.05.037","article-title":"Maize meal predisposes to endemic squamous cancer of the oesophagus in Africa: Breakdown of esterified linoleic acid to the free form in stored meal leads to increased intragastric pge2 production and a low-acid reflux","volume":"67","author":"Sammon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czu109","article-title":"Food sovereignty, food security and health equity: A meta-narrative mapping exercise","volume":"30","author":"Weiler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guillaume, D., Waheed, D.-e.-N., Schleiff, M., Muralidharan, K.K., Vorsters, A., and Limaye, R.J. (2024). Global perspectives of determinants influencing HPV vaccine introduction and scale-up in low- and middle-income countries. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0291990"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2950","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_102_20","article-title":"Parental acceptance of human papillomavirus vaccination for adolescent girls in Lagos, Nigeria","volume":"9","author":"Rabiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2020.106335","article-title":"National implementation of HPV vaccination programs in low-resource countries: Lessons, challenges, and future prospects","volume":"144","author":"Tsu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021039","DOI":"10.4178\/epih.e2021039","article-title":"Prevalence of high-risk HPV genotypes in sub-Saharan Africa according to HIV status: A 20-year systematic review","volume":"43","author":"Okoye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Health"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barnes, K. (2022). Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections: Travelers Beware, Iowa State University.","DOI":"10.31274\/cc-20240624-1303"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-021-05608-8","article-title":"Single-dose HPV vaccination efficacy among adolescent girls and young women in Kenya (the KEN SHE study): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial","volume":"22","author":"Barnabas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2015.15.4.191","article-title":"Immune-Mediated Liver Injury in Hepatitis B Virus Infection","volume":"15","author":"Oh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immune Netw."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"229","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA A Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a021493","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a021493","article-title":"Prevention of Hepatitis B","volume":"5","author":"Chang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1159\/000508568","article-title":"The Burden and Trends of Primary Liver Cancer Caused by Specific Etiologies from 1990 to 2017 at the Global, Regional, National, Age, and Sex Level Results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"9","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Cancer"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2015.09.002","article-title":"Cancer and HIV infection in referral hospitals from four West African countries","volume":"39","author":"Jaquet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Humphrey, J., Nagel, E., Carlucci, J.G., Edmonds, A., Kinikar, A., Anderson, K., Leroy, V., Machado, D., Yin, D.E., and Tulio Luque, M. (2023). Integration of HIV care into maternal and child health services in the global IeDEA consortium. Front. Glob. Women\u2019S Health, 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgwh.2023.1066297"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.21037\/jgo.2018.10.08","article-title":"Treatment outcomes of patients with localized anal squamous cell carcinoma according to HIV infection: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Camandaroba","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Gastrointest. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"761","article-title":"Age-specific burden of cervical cancer associated with HIV: A global analysis with a focus on sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"150","author":"Mpunga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.32260","article-title":"Cervical cancer risk in women living with HIV across four continents: A multicohort study","volume":"146","author":"Rohner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cattelan, A.M., Mazzitelli, M., Presa, N., Cozzolino, C., Sasset, L., Leoni, D., Bragato, B., Scaglione, V., Baldo, V., and Parisi, S.G. (2023). Changing Prevalence of AIDS and Non-AIDS-Defining Cancers in an Incident Cohort of People Living with HIV over 28 Years. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16010070"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000167","DOI":"10.15761\/CRR.1000167","article-title":"Histopathological helicobacter pylori verification and related regimen in the presence of esophageal strictures secondary to surgical procedures for the esophageal cancer","volume":"2","author":"Kesicioglu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Rep. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1002\/mc.20826","article-title":"Pancreatic cancer: Helicobacter pylori Colonization, N-Nitrosamine exposures, and ABO blood group","volume":"51","author":"Risch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Carcinog."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.30477","article-title":"Fruit and vegetable consumption, Helicobacter pylori antibodies, and gastric cancer risk: A pooled analysis of prospective studies in china, japan, and korea","volume":"140","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9909","DOI":"10.7314\/APJCP.2014.15.22.9909","article-title":"Improved Eradication Rate of Standard Triple Therapy by Adding Bismuth and Probiotic Supplement for Helicobacter pylori Treatment in Thailand","volume":"15","author":"Srinarong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebrahimi, Z., Masoodi, M., Aslani, Z., Naghshi, S., Khalighi Sikaroudi, M., and Shidfar, F. (2022). Association between dietary antioxidant index and risk of Helicobacter pylori infection among adults: A case\u2013control study. BMC Gastroenterol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-022-02488-3"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, T.-W., Melville, S., Utzinger, J., King, C.H., and Zhou, X.-N. (2012). Soil-Transmitted Helminth Reinfection after Drug Treatment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001621"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0105-2896.2004.00191.x","article-title":"Helminth parasites\u2014Masters of regulation","volume":"201","author":"Maizels","year":"2004","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40487-023-00248-1","article-title":"From Incidence to Intervention: A Comprehensive Look at Breast Cancer in South Africa","volume":"12","author":"Dlamini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Oncol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pastille, E., Frede, A., McSorley, H.J., Gr\u00e4b, J., Adamczyk, A., Kollenda, S., Hansen, W., Epple, M., Buer, J., and Maizels, R.M. (2017). Intestinal helminth infection drives carcinogenesis in colitis-associated colon cancer. PLoS Pathog., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006649"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.05.030","article-title":"Identification and Validation of Oncogenes in Liver Cancer Using an Integrative Oncogenomic Approach","volume":"125","author":"Zender","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s40794-023-00215-8","article-title":"A systematic review of the effects of hepatitis B and C virus on the progression of liver fluke infection to liver cancer","volume":"10","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trop. Dis. Travel Med. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"von B\u00fclow, V., Lichtenberger, J., Grevelding, C.G., Falcone, F.H., Roeb, E., and Roderfeld, M. (2021). Does Schistosoma Mansoni Facilitate Carcinogenesis?. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10081982"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30192","article-title":"Schistosoma mansoni Egg\u2013Secreted Antigens Activate Hepatocellular Carcinoma\u2013Associated Transcription Factors c-Jun and STAT3 in Hamster and Human Hepatocytes","volume":"72","author":"Roderfeld","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04681-x","article-title":"Colorectal cancer and Blastocystis sp. infection","volume":"14","author":"Adamska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"209","article-title":"Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries","volume":"71","author":"Sung","year":"2021","journal-title":"CA A Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s12029-020-00518-5","article-title":"Molecular Mechanism of Helicobacter pylori-Induced Gastric Cancer","volume":"52","author":"Alipour","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gastrointest. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1515\/pteridines.2010.21.1.110","article-title":"Exposure to Helicobacter pylori and Serum Kynurenine to Tryptophan Ratio in Patients with Gastric Cancer","volume":"21","author":"Engin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pteridines"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000331","article-title":"Hiv-associated malignancies in children","volume":"12","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2672","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.26269","article-title":"Health and economic impact of HPV 16\/18 vaccination and cervical cancer screening in Eastern Africa","volume":"130","author":"Campos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bitariho, G.K., Tuhebwe, D., Tigaiza, A., Nalugya, A., Ssekamatte, T., and Kiwanuka, S.N. (2023). Knowledge, perceptions and uptake of human papilloma virus vaccine among adolescent girls in Kampala, Uganda; a mixed-methods school-based study. BMC Pediatr., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-023-04174-z"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deignan, C., Swartz, A., Cooper, S., and Colvin, C.J. (2021). Stakeholders\u2019 Understandings of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Rapid Qualitative Systematic Review. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9050496"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v15i1.5","article-title":"Feasibility of delivering HPV vaccine to girls aged 10 to 15 years in Uganda","volume":"15","author":"Mugisha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Afr. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amponsah-Dacosta, E., Blose, N., Nkwinika, V.V., and Chepkurui, V. (2022). Human Papillomavirus Vaccination in South Africa: Programmatic Challenges and Opportunities for Integration with Other Adolescent Health Services?. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.799984"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s13027-022-00466-8","article-title":"Hepatitis B or C viral infection and the risk of cervical cancer","volume":"17","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Agents Cancer"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2012.02.009","article-title":"Population attributable risk of aflatoxin-related liver cancer: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"48","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"439867","article-title":"Knowledge of Hepatitis B Virus Infection, Immunization with Hepatitis B Vaccine, Risk Perception, and Challenges to Control Hepatitis Among Hospital Workers in a Nigerian Tertiary Hospital","volume":"2015","author":"Adekanle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hepat. Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000327","article-title":"Evolving epidemiology of HIV-associated malignancies","volume":"12","author":"Shiels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sasco, A.J., Jaquet, A., Boidin, E., Ekouevi, D.K., Thouillot, F., LeMabec, T., Forstin, M.-A., Renaudier, P., N\u2019Dom, P., and Malvy, D. (2010). The Challenge of AIDS-Related Malignancies in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008621"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380361","DOI":"10.1080\/16549716.2017.1380361","article-title":"Uptake and correlates of cervical cancer screening among HIV-infected women attending HIV care in Uganda","volume":"10","author":"Wanyenze","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. Health Action"},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"17455065211017041","article-title":"Role of awareness on cervical cancer screening uptake among HIV positive women in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study","volume":"17","author":"Emru","year":"2021","journal-title":"Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2015-309252","article-title":"Kyoto global consensus report on Helicobacter pylori gastritis","volume":"64","author":"Sugano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426309","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/426309","article-title":"pylori Virulence Factors: Influence on Immune System and Pathology","volume":"2014","author":"Kalali","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-014-0127-3","article-title":"Glutathione s-transferase gene gstm1, gene-gene interaction, and gastric cancer susceptibility: Evidence from an updated meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Lao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1097\/CEJ.0000000000000779","article-title":"Phylogenetic origin of Helicobacter pylori pathogenicity island and risk of stomach cancer and high-grade premalignant gastric lesions","volume":"32","author":"Canzian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Emileva Krasteva, M. (2024). Environmental Stress, Epigenetic Modifications, Adaptation, and Disease: A Fine Interplay. Genetics, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.1004285"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Islam, R., Zhao, L., Wang, Y., Lu-Yao, G., and Liu, L.-Z. (2022). Epigenetic Dysregulations in Arsenic-Induced Carcinogenesis. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14184502"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pogribny, I.P., and Rusyn, I. (2012). Environmental Toxicants, Epigenetics, and Cancer. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-9967-2_11"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da Silva, M., De Albuquerque, B., Allyrio, T., De Almeida, V., Cobucci, R., Bezerra, F., Andrade, V., Lanza, D., De Azevedo, J., and De Ara\u00fajo, J. (2021). The role of HPV-induced epigenetic changes in cervical carcinogenesis (Review). Biomed. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.3892\/br.2021.1436"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3662","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2016.5141","article-title":"Molecular alterations in the carcinogenesis and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma: Tumor factors and background liver factors","volume":"12","author":"Inokawa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, E.Y., and Kim, G.-D. (2024). Particulate Matter-Induced Emerging Health Effects Associated with Oxidative Stress and Inflammation. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13101256"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgr297","article-title":"Current understanding of the mechanism of benzene-induced leukemia in humans: Implications for risk assessment","volume":"33","author":"McHale","year":"2011","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Hajj, H., Hemida, R., Taumberger, N., Friko, I., Gassama, O., Ramogola-Masire, D., Gubena, F., Ikpeze, O., Nakazzi, C.B., and Gultekin, M. (2025). Advancing cervical cancer prevention in Africa: ESGO\u2019S strategic initiatives and collaborative efforts. Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer, 101841.","DOI":"10.1136\/ijgc-2024-006059"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, S., Zhang, T., Tang, L., and Li, Y. (2021). Cytokines and chemokines in HBV Infection. Front. Mol. Biosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2021.805625"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aronica, L., Ordovas, J.M., Volkov, A., Lamb, J.J., Stone, P.M., Minich, D., Leary, M., Class, M., Metti, D., and Larson, I.A. (2022). Genetic Biomarkers of Metabolic Detoxification for Personalized Lifestyle Medicine. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14040768"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3390\/jox11030007","article-title":"The Central Role of Cytochrome p450 in Xenobiotic Metabolism\u2014A Brief Review on a Fascinating Enzyme Family","volume":"11","author":"Esteves","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Xenobiotics"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3246","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.13702","article-title":"GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms are associated with increased bladder cancer risk: Evidence from updated meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gor\u0105cy, J., Bogacz, A., Uzar, I., Wolek, M., \u0141ochy\u0144ska, M., Zi\u0119tek, P., Czerny, B., Cymbaluk-P\u0142oska, A., Modliborski, P., and Kami\u0144ski, A. (2021). The Analysis of NADPH Quinone Reductase 1 (NQO1) Polymorphism in Polish Patients with Colorectal Cancer. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11071024"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3119","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.33139","article-title":"Circadian genes polymorphisms, night work and prostate cancer risk: Findings from the EPICAP study","volume":"147","author":"Koudou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oyesola, O.O., Souza, C.O.S., and Loke, P.n. (2022). The Influence of Genetic and Environmental Factors and Their Interactions on Immune Response to Helminth Infections. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.869163"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/s13027-021-00395-y","article-title":"HPV16 E6-specific T cell response and HLA-A alleles are related to the prognosis of patients with cervical cancer","volume":"16","author":"Cai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Agents Cancer"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvr.2023.200269","article-title":"Association of two genomic variants with HPV type-specific risk of cervical cancer","volume":"16","author":"Seifert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tumour Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mei, T.T.Y., Aung, H.H., Tung, W.S., and Naing, C. (2023). Association between IL-10 gene polymorphisms (\u2212\u20091082 A\/G, -819 T\/C, -592 A\/C) and hepatocellular carcinoma: A meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. BMC Cancer, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-023-11323-1"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1002\/em.22381","article-title":"DNA\u2013protein crosslinks from environmental exposure: Mechanisms of formation and repair","volume":"61","author":"Kojima","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Mol. Mutagen."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.7150\/jca.30410","article-title":"BRCA Genes: The Role in Genome Stability, Cancer Stemness and Therapy Resistance","volume":"10","author":"Gorodetska","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2008.05.006","article-title":"The Social Determinants of Cancer","volume":"35","author":"Hiatt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.18332\/tpc\/132803","article-title":"World cancer day 2021: Prevention, awareness and accountability in tobacco control","volume":"7","author":"Romero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tob. Prev. Cessat."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e459","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(22)00387-4","article-title":"Evolution of the joint International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), and WHO cancer control assessments (impact reviews)","volume":"23","author":"Veljkovikj","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e236","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00506-4","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and oesophageal squamous cell cancer risk in east Africa: Findings from the large multicentre ESCCAPE case-control study in Kenya, Tanzania, and Malawi","volume":"10","author":"Middleton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-5394.2001.009002100.x","article-title":"Providing resources for Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders","volume":"9","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cancer Pract."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mwaka, A.D. (2022). Sociocultural Influences on Cancer Care in Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Perspectives in Cancer Care, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780197551349.003.0024"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e146956","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI146956","article-title":"Vaccines for immunoprevention of cancer","volume":"131","author":"Enokida","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.04.021","article-title":"Human papillomavirus vaccine coverage in Rwanda: A population-level analysis by birth cohort","volume":"38","author":"Sayinzoga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvacx.2024.100563","article-title":"Exploring the landscape of routine immunization in Nigeria: A scoping review of barriers and facilitators","volume":"20","author":"Mohammed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vaccine X"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abesig, J., Chen, Y., Wang, H., Sompo, F.M., and Wu, I.X.Y. (2020). Prevalence of viral hepatitis B in Ghana between 2015 and 2019: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0234348"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Busafi, S.A., and Alwassief, A. (2024). Global Perspectives on the Hepatitis B vaccination: Challenges, Achievements, and the Road to Elimination by 2030. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202402.0493.v1"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwx166","article-title":"Long-Term PM2.5 Exposure and Respiratory, Cancer, and Cardiovascular Mortality in Older US Adults","volume":"186","author":"Pun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108743","article-title":"Nasal filter reveal exposure risks of inhalable particulates and heavy metals in urban women","volume":"188","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"Bank, A.D. (2017). Delivering Inclusive and Sustainable Infrastructure: Featured Infrastructure Projects and Initiatives, Inter-American Development Bank."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-015-2558-4","article-title":"Arsenic in African Waters: A Review","volume":"226","author":"Lalanne","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2022.100746","article-title":"Arsenic in Africa: Potential sources, spatial variability, and the state of the art for arsenic removal using locally available materials","volume":"18","author":"Irunde","year":"2022","journal-title":"Groundw. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trinh, T.N.D., Tran, N.K.S., Nguyen, H.A., Chon, N.M., Trinh, K.T.L., and Lee, N.Y. (2024). Recent advances in portable devices for environmental monitoring applications. Biomicrofluidics, 18.","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0224217"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.112510","article-title":"Sensors and systems for air quality assessment monitoring and management: A review","volume":"289","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17159\/caj\/2021\/31\/1.11219","article-title":"Commentary: Opportunities for the application of low-cost sensors in epidemiological studies to advance evidence of air pollution impacts on human health","volume":"31","author":"Wernecke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clean Air J."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luvhimbi, N., Tshitangano, T.G., Mabunda, J.T., Olaniyi, F.C., and Edokpayi, J.N. (2022). Water quality assessment and evaluation of human health risk of drinking water from source to point of use at Thulamela municipality, Limpopo Province. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-10092-4"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2021.102981","article-title":"Transit pollution exposure monitoring using low-cost wearable sensors","volume":"98","author":"Motlagh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matus, P., Urquidi, C., C\u00e1rcamo, M., and Vidal, V. (2024). Integrating the exposome and one health approach to national health surveillance: An opportunity for Latin American countries in health preventive management. Front. Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1376609"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirma, A., Makita, K., Grace Randolph, D., Senerwa, D., and Lindahl, J. (2019). Aflatoxin Exposure from Milk in Rural Kenya and the Contribution to the Risk of Liver Cancer. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11080469"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17159\/caj\/2020\/30\/1.8012","article-title":"Changes in health risk associated with air pollution and policy response effectiveness, Richards Bay, South Africa","volume":"30","author":"Okello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clean Air J."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mwisongo, A., and Nabyonga-Orem, J. (2016). Global health initiatives in Africa\u2014Governance, priorities, harmonisation and alignment. BMC Health Serv. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-016-1448-9"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.12688\/aasopenres.12983.1","article-title":"Integrating environmental health and genomics research in Africa: Challenges and opportunities identified during a human heredity and health in africa (h3africa) consortium workshop","volume":"2","author":"Joubert","year":"2019","journal-title":"AAS Open Res."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Welch, J.J., and Salicrup, L.A. (2015). Funding for Cancer Research and Clinical Studies in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Cancer Research and Clinical Trials in Developing Countries, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-18443-2_8"},{"key":"ref_144","first-page":"394","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"68","author":"Bray","year":"2018","journal-title":"CA A Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s13187-011-0272-5","article-title":"Reducing Cancer Disparities Through Innovative Partnerships: A Collaboration of the South Carolina Cancer Prevention and Control Research Network and Federally Qualified Health Centers","volume":"27","author":"Friedman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cancer Educ."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3667","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S321200","article-title":"Utilisation of Community Audio Towers in Health Education for Prevention of Cervical Cancer by Health Workers in Kyotera District, Uganda: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"14","author":"Kabanda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Risk Manag. Healthc. Policy"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.3659","article-title":"Capacity building for cancer prevention and early detection in the Ugandan primary healthcare facilities: Working toward reducing the unmet needs of cancer control services","volume":"10","author":"Jatho","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2015.03.017","article-title":"Changing knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors regarding cervical cancer screening: The effects of an educational intervention in rural Kenya","volume":"98","author":"Rosser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Patient Educ. Couns."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4621446","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4621446","article-title":"Effectiveness of a Community Health Worker-Led Intervention on Knowledge, Perception, and Prostate Cancer Screening Among Men in Rural Kenya","volume":"2022","author":"Mbugua","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30068-4","article-title":"Impact of HPV vaccination and cervical screening on cervical cancer elimination: A comparative modelling analysis in 78 low-income and lower-middle-income countries","volume":"395","author":"Brisson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milondzo, T., Meyer, J.C., Dochez, C., and Burnett, R.J. (2022). Human Papillomavirus Vaccine Hesitancy Highly Evident Among Caregivers of Girls Attending South African Private Schools. Vaccines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10040503"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eti.2015.11.001","article-title":"Nanoparticles for environmental clean-up: A review of potential risks and emerging solutions","volume":"5","author":"Patil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Technol. Innov."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8524861","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/8524861","article-title":"Environmental and Life-Style Related Risk Factors for Sinonasal and Nasopharyngeal Malignancies Among a Prospective Cohort in Jos, Nigeria","volume":"2018","author":"Adoga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"E359","article-title":"Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: Sources, methods and major patterns in GLOBOCAN 2012","volume":"136","author":"Ferlay","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, X.-D., Deng, Y., Huang, X.-Y., Yao, J.-G., Su, Q.-Y., Wu, X.-M., Wang, J., Xu, Q.-Q., Zhu, X.-Y., and Wang, C. (2018). Molecular Mechanisms of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Related to Aflatoxins: An Update. Liver Research and Clinical Management, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.72883"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.15562\/ism.v12i3.1020","article-title":"Dietary management in colorectal cancer prevention: A review","volume":"12","author":"Kristanto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intisari Sains Medis"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2287","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-10-0362","article-title":"Alcohol and Tobacco Use in Relation to Gastric Cancer: A Prospective Study of Men in Shanghai, China","volume":"19","author":"Moy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1097\/CCO.0000000000001068","article-title":"Potential application of artificial intelligence in cancer therapy","volume":"36","author":"Riaz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.61838\/kman.hn.1.2.11","article-title":"The Role and Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Leveraging Big Data in the Healthcare Domain","volume":"1","author":"Jabbari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Nexus"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1002\/1878-0261.12920","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in cancer research: Learning at different levels of data granularity","volume":"15","author":"Cirillo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Badawy, M. (2023). Integrating Artificial Intelligence and Big Data into Smart Healthcare Systems: A Comprehensive Review of Current Practices and Future Directions. Artif. Intell. Evol., 133\u2013153.","DOI":"10.37256\/aie.4220232980"},{"key":"ref_162","first-page":"1","article-title":"CDC Activities to Enhance Training in Cancer Prevention and Control in Field Epidemiology Training Programs in Low- and Middle-Income Countries","volume":"4","author":"Senkomago","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Glob. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_163","first-page":"1","article-title":"Subsequent Cancer Prevention and Control Activities Among Low- and Middle-Income Country Participants in the US National Cancer Institute\u2019S Summer Curriculum in Cancer Prevention","volume":"5","author":"Vogel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Glob. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vii20","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdr422","article-title":"Clinical trials of cancer screening in the developing world and their impact on cancer healthcare","volume":"22","author":"Sankaranarayanan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(24)00087-6","article-title":"Liver cancer surveillance in people with hepatitis b in africa","volume":"9","author":"Ndububa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/15\/2537\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:19:58Z","timestamp":1760033998000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/15\/2537"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]]},"references-count":165,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers17152537"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers17152537","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]]}}}