{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:38:30Z","timestamp":1760060310204,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Health","award":["9 R44 AG073096-02A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["9 R44 AG073096-02A1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There is currently no effective therapeutic capable of arresting or inducing regression of primary or metastatic brain cancers. This article presents both pre-clinical and clinical studies supportive that a new bioengineered technology could induce regression and\/or elimination of primary and metastatic brain cancers through three disease-modifying mechanisms. Transcranial Radiofrequency Wave Treatment (TRFT) is non-thermal, non-invasive and self-administered in-home to safely provide radiofrequency waves to the entire human brain. Since TRFT has already been shown to stop and reverse the cognitive decline of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in small studies, evidence is provided that three key mechanisms of TRFT action, alone or in synergy, could effectively treat brain cancers: (1) enhancement of brain meningeal lymph flow to increase immune trafficking between the brain cancer and cervical lymph nodes, resulting in a robust immune attack on the brain cancer; (2) rebalancing of the immune system\u2019s cytokines within the brain or brain cancer environment to decrease inflammation therein and thus make for an inhospitable environment for brain cancer growth; (3) direct anti-proliferation\/antigrowth affects within the brain tumor microenvironment. Importantly, these mechanisms of TRFT action could be effective against both visualized brain tumors and those that are yet too small to be identified through brain imaging. The existing animal and human clinical evidence presented in this perspective article justifies TRFT to be clinically tested immediately against both primary and metastatic brain cancers as monotherapy or possibly in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17162665","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T14:24:28Z","timestamp":1755267868000},"page":"2665","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Evidence That Brain Cancers Could Be Effectively Treated with In-Home Radiofrequency Waves"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Gary W.","family":"Arendash","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"RF Longevity SE, Phoenix, AZ 85022, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2025.8881","article-title":"Transitioning from molecular methods to therapeutic methods: An in-depth analysis of glioblastoma","volume":"53","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2453","DOI":"10.1007\/s00701-022-05301-y","article-title":"The WHO 2021 classification of central nervous system tumours: A practical update on what neurosurgeons need to know-a minireview","volume":"164","author":"Torp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Neurochir."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Br\u00e1s, J., Jesus, T., Prazeres, H., Lima, J., Soares, P., and Vinagre, J. (2023). TERT monitor-qPCR detection of TERTp mutations in glioma. Genes, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes14091693"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1996.85.6.1078","article-title":"Glomeruloid vascular structures in glioblastoma multiforme: An immunohisto and ultrastructural study","volume":"85","author":"Rojiani","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2009.12.020","article-title":"Integrated genomic analysis identifies clinically relevant subtypes of glioblastoma characterized by abnormalities in PDGFRA, IDH1, EGFR, and NF1","volume":"17","author":"Verhaak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa043330","article-title":"Radiotherapy plus Concomitant and Adjuvant Temozolomide for Glioblastoma","volume":"352","author":"Stupp","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-14-0275","article-title":"Epidemiologic and Molecular Prognostic Review of Glioblastoma","volume":"23","author":"Thakkar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2022.03.030","article-title":"Recent Advances in the Therapeutic Strategies of Glioblastoma Multiforme","volume":"491","author":"Aldoghachi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"v1","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noac202","article-title":"CBTRUS Statistical Report: Primary Brain and Other Central Nervous System Tumors Diagnosed in the United States in 2015\u20132019","volume":"24","author":"Ostrom","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1611977","article-title":"Short-Course Radiation plus Temozolomide in Elderly Patients with Glioblastoma","volume":"376","author":"Perry","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obrador, E., Moreno-Murciano, P., Oriol-Caballo, M., L\u00f3pez-Blanch, R., Pineda, B., Gutierrez-Arroyo, J.L., Loras, A., Gonzalez-Bonet, L.G., Martinez-Cadenas, C., and Estrela, J.M. (2024). Glioblastoma Therapy: Past, Present and Future. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25052529"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"236","article-title":"Invasion as Target for Therapy of Glioblastoma Multiforme","volume":"1836","author":"Vehlow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S2","DOI":"10.1188\/16.CJON.S1.2-8","article-title":"Glioblastoma: Overview of Disease and Treatment","volume":"20","author":"Davis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. J. Oncol. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"225","article-title":"Cancer statistics, 2009","volume":"59","author":"Jemal","year":"2009","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1097\/PPO.0000000000000237","article-title":"Melanoma brain metastases: Current areas of investigation and future directions","volume":"23","author":"Oliva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6015","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-08-4347","article-title":"Brain metastasis: Opportunities in basic and translational research","volume":"69","author":"Maher","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1007\/s11912-011-0203-y","article-title":"Epidemiology of brain metastases","volume":"14","author":"Nayak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Huang, Y., Zhu, C., Li, Z., Zhang, B., Sheng, H., Li, H., Liu, X., Xu, Z., and Wen, Y. (2025). Cancer brain metastasis: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Mol. Biomed., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-025-00251-0"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sampat, P.J., Cortese, A., Goodman, A., Ghelani, G.H., Mix, M.D., Graziano, S., and Basnet, A. (2024). Treatment of brain metastases from non-small cell lung cancer: Preclinical, clinical, and translational research. Front. Oncol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2024.1411432"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ezzati, S., Salib, S., Balasubramaniam, M., and Aboud, O. (2024). Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors in glioblastoma: Current status and future possibilities. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25042316"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Testa, U., Castelli, G., and Pelosi, E. (2024). CAR-T Cells in the treatment of nervous system tumors. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202407.1661.v1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2525394","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2025.2525394","article-title":"Comparative efficacy of glioma treatment strategies: An umbrella review of meta-analyses","volume":"57","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3475","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2015.60.9503","article-title":"Treatment of brain metastases","volume":"33","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franchino, F., Ruda, R., and Soffietti, R. (2018). Mechanisms and therapy for cancer metastasis to the brain. Front. Oncol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2018.00161"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-019-0320-3","article-title":"Current approaches to the management of brain metastases","volume":"17","author":"Suh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2024.108469","article-title":"Surgical resection of glio blastoma in the very elderly: An analysis of survival outcomes using the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database","volume":"245","author":"Horowitz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-3019(02)00753-X","article-title":"Prognostic factors in patients who survived more than 10 years after undergoing surgery for meta static brain tumors: Report of 5 cases and review of the literature","volume":"58","author":"Takeshima","year":"2002","journal-title":"Surg. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonosi, L., Marrone, S., Benigno, U.E., Buscemi, F., Musso, S., Porzio, M., Silven, M.P., Torregrossa, F., and Grasso, G. (2023). Maximal Safe Resection in Glioblastoma Surgery: A Systematic Review of Advanced Intraoperative Image-Guided Techniques. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13020216"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"364","article-title":"Safe Surgery for Glioblastoma: Recent Advances and Modern Challenges","volume":"9","author":"Gerritsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurooncol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.3171\/2010.3.JNS097","article-title":"Counterbalancing Risks and Gains from Extended Resections in Malignant Glioma Surgery: A Supplemental Analysis from the Randomized 5-Aminolevulinic Acid Glioma Resection Study. Clinical Article","volume":"114","author":"Stummer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coburger, J., Hagel, V., Wirtz, C.R., and K\u00f6nig, R. (2015). Surgery for Glioblastoma: Impact of the Combined Use of 5-Aminolevulinic Acid and Intraoperative MRI on Extent of Resection and Survival. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0131872"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s10143-017-0836-x","article-title":"The Patients\u2019 View: Impact of the Extent of Resection, Intraoperative Imaging, and Awake Surgery on Health-Related Quality of Life in High-Grade Glioma Patients\u2014Results of a Multicenter Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"41","author":"Nickel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-018-03064-0","article-title":"Re-Irradiation for Recurrent Glioblastoma (GBM): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"142","author":"Kazmi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20180713","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.20180713","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging-guided radiation therapy using animal models of glioblastoma","volume":"92","author":"Vanhove","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1039\/D1BM01401C","article-title":"Radiotherapy for glioblastoma: Clinical issues and nanotechnology strategies","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diii.2018.03.001","article-title":"High Intensity Focused Ultrasound: The Fundamentals, Clinical Applications and Research Trends","volume":"99","author":"Elhelf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diagn. Interv. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E16","DOI":"10.3171\/2017.11.FOCUS17610","article-title":"High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound: Past, Present, and Future in Neurosurgery","volume":"44","author":"Quadri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Focus"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3793","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-18-3643","article-title":"Safety and Feasibility of Repeated and Transient Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption by Pulsed Ultrasound in Patients with Recurrent Glioblastoma","volume":"25","author":"Idbaih","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S.H., Kim, M.J., Jung, H.H., Chang, W.S., Choi, H.S., Rachmilevitch, I., Zadicario, E., and Chang, J.W. (2020). One-Year Outcome of Multiple Blood-Brain Barrier Disruptions with Temozolomide for the Treatment of Glioblastoma. Front. Oncol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.01663"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1186\/s13014-017-0941-6","article-title":"Tumor Treating Fields (TTFs) Delay DNA Damage Repair Following Radiation Treatment of Glioma Cells","volume":"12","author":"Giladi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Radiat. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-018-1085-9","article-title":"AMPK-Dependent Autophagy Upregulation Serves as a Survival Mechanism in Response to Tumor Treating Fields (TTFs)","volume":"9","author":"Shteingauz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6630","DOI":"10.1038\/s41388-019-0882-7","article-title":"Tumor-Treating Fields Induce Autophagy by Blocking the Akt2\/miR29b Axis in Glioblastoma Cells","volume":"38","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.13750","article-title":"Exploring the Efficacy of Tumor Electric Field Therapy against Glioblastoma: An in Vivo and in Vitro Study","volume":"27","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-022-01206-y","article-title":"The Schemes, Mechanisms and Molecular Pathway Changes of Tumor Treating Fields (TTFs) Alone or in Combination with Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy","volume":"8","author":"Tanzhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noaa106","article-title":"Glioblastoma in Adults: A Society for Neuro-Oncology (SNO) and European Society of Neuro-Oncology (EANO) Consensus Review on Current Management and Future Directions","volume":"22","author":"Wen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vdac096","DOI":"10.1093\/noajnl\/vdac096","article-title":"Molecular Alterations Associated with Improved Outcome in Patients with Glioblastoma Treated with Tumor-Treating Fields","volume":"4","author":"Pandey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bokstein, F., Blumenthal, D., Limon, D., Harosh, C.B., Ram, Z., and Grossman, R. (2020). Concurrent Tumor Treating Fields (TTFields) and Radiation Therapy for Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma: A Prospective Safety and Feasibility Study. Front. Oncol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.00411"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krigers, A., Pinggera, D., Demetz, M., Kornberger, L.-M., Kerschbaumer, J., Thom\u00e9, C., and Freyschlag, C.F. (2022). The Routine Application of Tumor-Treating Fields in the Treatment of Glioblastoma WHO\u00b0 IV. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.900377"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2012.04.011","article-title":"NovoTTF-100A versus Physician\u2019s Choice Chemotherapy in Recurrent Glioblastoma: A Randomized Phase III Trial of a Novel Treatment Modality","volume":"48","author":"Stupp","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2306","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.18718","article-title":"Effect of Tumor-Treating Fields Plus Maintenance Temozolomide vs Maintenance Temozolomide Alone on Survival in Patients with Glioblastoma: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"318","author":"Stupp","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2017.5082","article-title":"Influence of Treatment With Tumor-Treating Fields on Health-Related Quality of Life of Patients with Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"4","author":"Taphoorn","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vymazal, J., Kazda, T., Novak, T., Slanina, P., Sroubek, J., Klener, J., Hrbac, T., Syrucek, M., and Rulseh, A.M. (2023). Eighteen Years\u2019 Experience with Tumor Treating Fields in the Treatment of Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma. Front. Oncol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2022.1014455"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2373","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.34433","article-title":"Targeted Therapies in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma\u2014A Systematic Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials","volume":"152","author":"Scherm","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, A.B., Mozaffari, K., Aguirre, B., Li, V., Kubba, R., Desai, N.C., Wei, D., Yang, I., and Wadehra, M. (2023). Exploring the Past, Present, and Future of Anti-Angiogenic Therapy in Glioblastoma. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15030830"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annonc.2021.07.016","article-title":"EANO-ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of patients with brain metastasis from solid tumours","volume":"32","author":"Guckenberger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1186\/s12957-016-0975-5","article-title":"Gliadel wafer implantation combined with standard radiotherapy and concurrent followed by adjuvant temozolomide for treatment of newly diagnosed high-grade glioma: A systematic literature review","volume":"14","author":"Ashby","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Surg. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2012). LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.180612.114","article-title":"Whole Genome and Multisector Exome Sequencing of Primary and Post-Treatment Glioblastoma Reveals Patterns of Tumor Evolution","volume":"25","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"17","article-title":"Mechanisms of Temozolomide Resistance in Glioblastoma\u2014A Comprehensive Review","volume":"4","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1080\/15384047.2019.1599662","article-title":"Glioblastoma vs Temozolomide: Can the Red Queen Race Be Won?","volume":"20","author":"Arora","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida-Lima, K., Osawa, I.Y.A., Ramalho, M.C.C., de Souza, I., Guedes, C.B., de Souza Filho, C.H.D., Monteiro, L.K.S., Latancia, M.T., and Rocha, C.R.R. (2023). Temozolomide Resistance in Glioblastoma by NRF2: Protecting the Evil. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11041081"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42214","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.15031","article-title":"Comprehensive Analysis of PD-L1 Expression in Glioblastoma Multiforme","volume":"8","author":"Heiland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2019.03.019","article-title":"Immune Check-Point in Glioblastoma Multiforme","volume":"138","author":"Pranno","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab106","article-title":"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: A Summary","volume":"23","author":"Louis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-20-2500","article-title":"Randomized Phase II and Biomarker Study of Pembrolizumab plus Bevacizumab versus Pembrolizumab Alone for Patients with Recurrent Glioblastoma","volume":"27","author":"Nayak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noac116","article-title":"Phase III Trial of Chemoradiotherapy with Temozolomide plus Nivolumab or Placebo for Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma with Methylated MGMT Promoter","volume":"24","author":"Lim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noac099","article-title":"Radiotherapy Combined with Nivolumab or Temozolomide for Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma with Unmethylated MGMT Promoter: An International Randomized Phase III Trial","volume":"25","author":"Omuro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(17)30380-7","article-title":"Previous radiotherapy and the clinical activity and toxicity of pembrolizumab in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer: A secondary analysis of the KEYNOTE-001 phase 1 trial","volume":"18","author":"Shaverdian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1709937","article-title":"Durvalumab after chemoradiotherapy in stage III non-small-cell lung cancer","volume":"377","author":"Antonia","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cllc.2021.06.009","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of combined brain radiotherapy and immunotherapy in non-small-cell lung cancer with brain metastases: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1186\/s40425-019-0580-6","article-title":"The Clinical Application of Cancer Immunotherapy Based on Naturally Circulating Dendritic Cells","volume":"7","author":"Bol","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e163449","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI163449","article-title":"Next-Generation Antigen-Presenting Cell Immune Therapeutics for Gliomas","volume":"133","author":"Lesniak","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1701024","article-title":"Dendritic Cell-Based Cancer Vaccines","volume":"200","author":"Santos","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buchroithner, J., Erhart, F., Pichler, J., Widhalm, G., Preusser, M., Stockhammer, G., Nowosielski, M., Lglseder, S., Freyschlag, C.F., and Oberndorfer, S. (2018). Audencel Immunotherapy Based on Dendritic Cells Has No Effect on Overall and Progression-Free Survival in Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma: A Phase II Randomized Trial. Cancers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers10100372"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-022-02552-6","article-title":"Phase 2 Study of AV-GBM-1 (a Tumor-Initiating Cell Targeted Dendritic Cell Vaccine) in Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma Patients: Safety and Efficacy Assessment","volume":"41","author":"Bota","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2022.5370","article-title":"Association of Autologous Tumor Lysate-Loaded Dendritic Cell Vaccination with Extension of Survival Among Patients with Newly Diagnosed and Recurrent Glioblastoma: A Phase 3 Prospective Externally Controlled Cohort Trial","volume":"9","author":"Liau","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-018-2232-y","article-title":"Molecular Subgroups and B7-H4 Expression Levels Predict Responses to Dendritic Cell Vaccines in Glioblastoma: An Exploratory Randomized Phase II Clinical Trial","volume":"67","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2461","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-01892-8","article-title":"Tumor Development and Angiogenesis in Adult Brain Tumor: Glioblastoma","volume":"57","author":"Ahir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2005.05.132","article-title":"Bevacizumab (Avastin), a humanized anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody for cancer therapy","volume":"333","author":"Ferrara","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1308345","article-title":"Bevacizumab plus Radiotherapy-Temozolomide for Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma","volume":"370","author":"Chinot","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1308573","article-title":"A Randomized Trial of Bevacizumab for Newly Diagnosed Glio- blastoma","volume":"370","author":"Gilbert","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1954","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1707358","article-title":"Lomustine and Bevacizumab in Progressive Glioblastoma","volume":"377","author":"Wick","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2015.63.4691","article-title":"Bevacizumab Plus Irinotecan Versus Temozolomide in Newly Diagnosed O6-Methylguanine\u2013DNA Methyltransferase Nonmethylated Glioblastoma: The Randomized GLARIUS Trial","volume":"34","author":"Herrlinger","year":"2016","journal-title":"JCO"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.3109\/0284186X.2013.879607","article-title":"Neoadjuvant Bevacizumab and Irinotecan versus Bevacizumab and Temozolomide Followed by Concomitant Chemoradiotherapy in Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma Multiforme: A Randomized Phase II Study","volume":"53","author":"Hofland","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Oncol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2015-0135","article-title":"Phase II Trial of Upfront Bevacizumab, Irinotecan, and Temozolomide for Unresectable Glioblastoma","volume":"20","author":"Peters","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.2217\/cns-2015-0010","article-title":"A Phase II Trial of Tandutinib (MLN 518) in Combination with Bevacizumab for Patients with Recurrent Glioblastoma","volume":"5","author":"Odia","year":"2016","journal-title":"CNS Oncol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4816","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-13-0708","article-title":"Phase II Study of Bevacizumab in Combination with Sorafenib in Recurrent Glioblastoma (N0776): A North Central Cancer Treatment Group Trial","volume":"19","author":"Galanis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"1657","article-title":"Phase II Study of Bevacizumab and Temozolomide Combination Therapy for Recurrent Glioblastoma Multiforme","volume":"33","author":"Lassen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noq099","article-title":"Phase II Trial of Bevacizumab and Erlotinib in Patients with Recurrent Malignant Glioma","volume":"12","author":"Sathornsumetee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rios-Hoyo, A., and Arriola, E. (2023). Immunotherapy and brain metastasis in lung cancer: Connecting bench side science to the clinic. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1221097"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.21037\/atm-22-2670","article-title":"Effects of Postoperative Radiotherapy and Docetaxel and PD-1 Inhibitors on the Survival and Safety of Glioblastoma Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"10","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2304194","article-title":"Vorasidenib in IDH1- or IDHR-mutant low-grade glioma","volume":"389","author":"Mellinghoff","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pathophys.2009.01.003","article-title":"Epidemiological evidence for an association between use of wireless phones and tumor diseases","volume":"16","author":"Hardell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pathophysiology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surneu.2009.01.019","article-title":"Cell phone sand brain tumors: Are view including the long term epidemiologic data","volume":"72","author":"Khurana","year":"2009","journal-title":"Surg. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"INTERPHONE Study Group (2010). Brain tumour risk in relation to mobile telephone use: Results of the INTERPHONE international case-control study. Int. J. Epidemiol., 39, 675\u2013694.","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyq079"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"d6387","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d6387","article-title":"Use of mobile phones and risk of brain tumours: Update of Danish cohort study","volume":"343","author":"Frei","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108983","article-title":"The effect of exposure to radiofrequency fields on cancer risk in the general and working population: A systematic review of human observational studies\u2014Part I: Most researched outcomes","volume":"191","author":"Karipidis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2010-1228","article-title":"Electromagnetic field treatment protects against and reverses cognitive impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease mice","volume":"19","author":"Arendash","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arendash, G.W., Mori, T., Dorsey, M., Gonzalez, R., Tajiri, N., and Borlongan, C. (2012). Electromagnetic treatment to old Alzheimer\u2019s mice reverses amyloid deposition, modifies cerebral blood flow, and provides selected cognitive benefit. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0035751"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"2","article-title":"Electromagnetic field treatment enhances neuronal activity: Linkage to cognitive benefit and therapeutic implications for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"1","author":"Mori","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. Parkinson."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.04.012","article-title":"Long-term electromagnetic field treatment enhances brain mitochondrial function of both Alzheimer\u2019s transgenic mice and normal mice: A mechanism for electromagnetic field-induced cognitive benefit?","volume":"185","author":"Dragicevic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arendash, G., and Cao, C. (2023). Transcranial electromagnetic wave treatment: A fountain of healthy longevity?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24119652"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-190367","article-title":"A clinical trial of transcranial electromagnetic treatment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Cognitive enhancement and associated changes in cerebrospinal fluid, blood, and brain imaging","volume":"71","author":"Arendash","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arendash, G., Abulaban, H., Steen, S., Andel, R., Wang, Y., Bai, Y., Baranowski, R., McGarity, J., Scritsmier, L., and Lin, X. (2022). Transcranial electromagnetic treatment stops Alzheimer\u2019s cognitive decline over a 2\u00bd year period: A pilot study. Medicines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines9080042"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1912-x","article-title":"VEGF-C-driven lymphatic drainage enables brain tumor immunosurveillance","volume":"577","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arendash, G. (2025). The brain toxin cleansing of sleep achieved during wakefulness. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14030926"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29738","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.29738","article-title":"Human and nonhuman primate meninges har- bor lymphatic vessels that can be visualized noninvasively by MRI","volume":"6","author":"Absinta","year":"2017","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3158","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2007-01-066811","article-title":"VEGF-A produced by chronically inflamed tissue induces lymphangiogenesis in draining lymph nodes","volume":"110","author":"Halin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0368-8","article-title":"Functional aspects of meningeal lymphatics in ageing and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"560","author":"Louveau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.230299","article-title":"Induced dural lymphangiogenesis facilities soluble amyloid-beta clearance from brain in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"13","author":"Wen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0287-8","article-title":"Meningeal lymphatic vessels regulate brain tumor drainage and immunity","volume":"30","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e124507","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.124507","article-title":"Tumor-draining lymph nodes are pivotal in PD-1\/PD-L1 checkpoint therapy","volume":"3","author":"Fransen","year":"2018","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.01.049","article-title":"The basis of oncoimmunology","volume":"164","author":"Palucka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaal4712","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aal4712","article-title":"Tumor lymphangiogenesis promotes T cell infiltration and potentiates immunotherapy in melanoma","volume":"9","author":"Fankhauser","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S223","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-240600","article-title":"Enhanced brain clearance of Tau and A\u03b2 in Alzheimer\u2019s patients by Transcranial Radiofrequency Wave Treatment: A central role of VEGF","volume":"100","author":"Arendash","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-9-113","article-title":"Serum cytokine profiles in healthy young and elderly population assessed using multiplexed bead-based immunoanalysis","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1101\/sqb.2002.67.227","article-title":"VEGF-A induces angiogenesis, arteriogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and vascular malformations","volume":"67","author":"Nagy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI20465","article-title":"VEGF-A stimulates lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis in inflammatory neovascularization via macrophage recruitment","volume":"113","author":"Cursiefen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000134383.27713.9A","article-title":"Angiogenic factors in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with astrocytic brain tumors","volume":"55","author":"Peles","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-019-03314-9","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid VEGF levels and angiogenic capacity as potential oprognostic markers in patients with gliomas: A pilot study","volume":"145","author":"Vera","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kemmerer, C.L., Schittenhelm, J., Dubois, E., Neumann, L., H\u00e4sler, L.M., Lambert, M., Renovanz, M., Kaeser, S.A., Tabatabai, G., and Ziemann, U. (2021). Cerebrospinal fluid cytokine levels are associated with macrophage infiltration into tumor tissues of glioma patients. BMC Cancer, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-021-08825-1"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060513481924","article-title":"Levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and matrix metalloproteinase-9 proteins in patients with glioma","volume":"42","author":"Ma","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Int Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_123","first-page":"979748","article-title":"Cytokine Patterns in Brain Tumour Progression","volume":"2013","author":"Albulescu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mediat. Flammation"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2022.09.005","article-title":"Challenges in glioblastoma research: Focus on the tumor microenvironment","volume":"9","author":"Bikfalvi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.2017.19","article-title":"Immune microenvironment of gliomas","volume":"97","author":"Gieryng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Nunno, V., Franceschi, E., Tosoni, A., Gatto, L., Bartoloni, S., and Brandes, A.A. (2022). Tumor-Associated Microenvironment of Adult Gliomas: A Review. Front. Oncol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2022.891543"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vdad009","DOI":"10.1093\/noajnl\/vdad009","article-title":"Tumor microenvironment in glioblastoma: Current and emerging concepts","volume":"5","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.2174\/0115680096265849231031101449","article-title":"Neuroinflammation in Glioblastoma: The Role of the Microenvironment in Tumour Progression","volume":"24","author":"Pimentel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Cancer Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Virtuoso, A., Giovannoni, R., De Luca, C., Gargano, F., Cerasuolo, M., Maggio, N., Lavitrano, M., and Papa, M. (2021). The Glioblastoma Microenvironment: Morphology, Metabolism, and Molecular Signature of Glial Dynamics to Discover Metabolic Rewiring Sequence. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22073301"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-020-0530-4","article-title":"Tumor microenvironment complexity and therapeutic implications at a glance","volume":"18","author":"Baghban","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4493","article-title":"Identification of diverse astrocyte populations and their malignant analogs","volume":"20","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s00109-023-02399-0","article-title":"CTHRC1 promotes colorectal cancer progression by recruiting tumor-associated macrophages via up-regulation of CCL15","volume":"102","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nec.2009.08.012","article-title":"The Role of Tregs in Glioma-Mediated Immunosuppression: Potential Target for Intervention","volume":"21","author":"Humphries","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-020-01234-1","article-title":"Regulatory T cells in tumor microenvironment: New mechanisms, potential therapeutic strategies and future prospects","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2924","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2016.4944","article-title":"Rescuing defective tumor-infiltrating T-cell proliferation in glioblastoma patients","volume":"12","author":"Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srivastava, S., Jackson, C., Kim, T., Choi, J., and Lim, M. (2019). A Characterization of Dendritic Cells and Their Role in Immunotherapy in Glioblastoma: From Preclinical Studies to Clinical Trials. Cancers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers11040537"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.4161\/cbt.5.2.2357","article-title":"Production and post-surgical modification of VEGF, tPA and PAI-1 in patients with glioma","volume":"5","author":"Salmaggi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2182","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.21648","article-title":"Different angiogenic phenotypes in primary and secondary glioblastomas","volume":"118","author":"Karcher","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.4161\/cbt.19237","article-title":"Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor promotes proliferation, migration and invasion in glioma cells","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2011.11.016","article-title":"Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor as an autocrine survival-growth factor in human gliomas","volume":"57","author":"Revoltella","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-024-02240-4","article-title":"Characterizing the linkage of systemic hypoxis and angiogenesis in high-grade glioma to define the changes in tumor microenvironment for predicting prognosis","volume":"74","author":"Shrivastava","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Gou, W., and Zhang, X. (2024). Neuroinflammation in Glioblastoma: Progress and Perspectives. Brain Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci14070687"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1177\/107327480401100305","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid (vascular endothelial growth factor) and serologic (recoverin) tumor markers for malignant glioma","volume":"11","author":"Sampath","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer Control"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2019.07.020","article-title":"Tumor associated macrophage related interleukin-6 in cerebrospinal fluid as a prognostic marker for glioblastoma","volume":"68","author":"Hori","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_145","first-page":"9114","article-title":"Role of IL-6 in the invasiveness and prognosis of glioma","volume":"8","author":"Shan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"138","article-title":"Serum granulocyte colony-stimulating factor levels in gliomas","volume":"16","author":"Yildiz","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Bijon"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, C., Abulaban, H., Baranowski, R., Wang, Y., Bai, Y., Lin, X., Shen, N., Zhang, X., and Arendash, G.W. (2022). Transcranial electromagnetic treatment \u201crebalances\u201d blood and brain cytokines levels in Alzheimer\u2019s patients: A new mechanism for reversal of their cognitive impairment. Front. Aging Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.829049"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karsten, E., Breen, E., and Herbert, B. (2018). Red blood cells are dynamic reservoirs of cytokines. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21387-w"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1269\/jrr.09126","article-title":"2-GHz band CW and W-CDMA modulated radiofrequency fields have no significant effect on cell proliferation and gene expression profile in human cells","volume":"51","author":"Sekijima","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Radiat. Res."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3255","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.12590","article-title":"Specifically Targeted Electromagnetic Fields Arrest Proliferation of Glioblastoma Multiforme U-87 Cells in Culture","volume":"38","author":"Narvaez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2021.1944944","article-title":"Exposure to long-term evolution radiofrequency electromagnetic fields decreases neuroblastoma cell proliferation via Akt\/mTOR-mediated cellular senescence","volume":"84","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.26444\/aaem\/176405","article-title":"Effects of 2.4 GHz radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) on glioblastoma cells (U-118 MG)","volume":"30","author":"Przesmycki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.108575","article-title":"Glioblastoma behavior study under different frequency electromagnetic field","volume":"26","author":"Xiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3288","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-04-0083","article-title":"Disruption of cancer cell replication by alternating electric fields","volume":"64","author":"Kirson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.62347\/NDII9862","article-title":"\u201cTumor treating fields\u201d delivered via electromagnetic induction have varied effects across glioma cell lines and electric field amplitudes","volume":"14","author":"Ravin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s13246-024-01508-8","article-title":"Memory enhancement by transcranial radiofrequency wave treatment occurs without appreciably increasing brain temperature","volume":"48","author":"Baranowski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys. Eng. Sci. Med."}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/16\/2665\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:28:40Z","timestamp":1760034520000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/16\/2665"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]},"references-count":156,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers17162665"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers17162665","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-6694"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]}}}