{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T21:15:06Z","timestamp":1791321306637,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]],"date-time":"2025-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761350400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the last decade, knowledge of gut microbiota has expanded. Several studies have demonstrated a correlation between certain diseases and alterations in gut microbiota. A comprehensive understanding of this complex ecosystem is still lacking; however, this review highlights the importance of microorganisms in oncology. Recently, several studies have demonstrated that the gut microbiota influences therapeutic efficacy and tumor formation, also known as tumorigenesis. We must remember that these microorganisms also play a crucial role in tumor prognosis. Since the discovery of Fusobacterium nucleatum in colorectal carcinoma (CRC), it has been established that tumor tissues are not sterile and contain microorganisms that can lead to either beneficial or harmful pathways, affecting tumor size and response to chemotherapeutic agents. Additionally, it should be noted that data on the pediatric population are limited, as this area has not been widely researched due to the low number of cases and the complexity of therapeutic approaches. In children, the only available data are mainly based on hematological malignancies, such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). For a better understanding, larger cohorts are required.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17213426","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T13:59:36Z","timestamp":1761659976000},"page":"3426","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Parallel Alterations in Gut and Tumor Microbiota in Pediatric Oncology: Potential Impacts on Disease Progression and Treatment Response"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9607-2695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrik J\u00f3zsef","family":"Szab\u00f3","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Center, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 7-9 T\u0171zolt\u00f3 Str., 1094 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7643-484X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vikt\u00f3ria","family":"S\u00e1gi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Center, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 7-9 T\u0171zolt\u00f3 Str., 1094 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Levente K\u00e1roly","family":"Kassai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 26 \u00dcll\u0151i Str., 1085 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4154-035X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ren\u00e1ta M\u00e1ria","family":"Kiss-Miki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurointervention, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 44 Laky Adolf Str., 1145 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6133-9863","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"N\u00f3ra","family":"Makra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 4 Nagyv\u00e1rad Square, 1089 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8601-3923","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D\u00f3ra","family":"Szab\u00f3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 4 Nagyv\u00e1rad Square, 1089 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4298-2746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikl\u00f3s","family":"Garami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Center, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 7-9 T\u0171zolt\u00f3 Str., 1094 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2019.07.010","article-title":"Maternal Vertical Transmission Affecting Early-life Microbiota Development","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.15501","article-title":"The impact of Cesarean section on the infant gut microbiome","volume":"110","author":"Hoang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2007.12.007","article-title":"Is meconium from healthy newborns sterile?","volume":"159","author":"Odriozola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, M.S., and Kakuma, R. (2012). Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD003517.pub2"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1","article-title":"Breastfeeding and maternal and infant health outcomes in developed countries","volume":"153","author":"Ip","year":"2007","journal-title":"Evid. Rep. Technol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bridgman, S.L., Azad, M.B., Field, C.J., Haqq, A.M., Becker, A.B., Mandhane, P.J., Subbarao, P., Turvey, S.E., Sears, M.R., and Scott, J.A. (2017). Fecal Short-Chain Fatty Acid Variations by Breastfeeding Status in Infants at 4\u2009Months: Differences in Relative versus Absolute Concentrations. Front. Nutr., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2017.00011"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.04.004","article-title":"Dynamics and Stabilization of the Human Gut Microbiome during the First Year of Life","volume":"17","author":"Roswall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1241165","article-title":"The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis","volume":"341","author":"Smith","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0617-x","article-title":"Temporal development of the gut microbiome in early childhood from the TEDDY study","volume":"562","author":"Stewart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laursen, M.F., Zachariassen, G., Bahl, M.I., Bergstr\u00f6m, A., H\u00f8st, A., Michaelsen, K.F., and Licht, T.R. (2015). Having older siblings is associated with gut microbiota development during early childhood. BMC Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-015-0477-6"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2015-310101","article-title":"Fusobacterium nucleatum in colorectal carcinoma tissue and patient prognosis","volume":"65","author":"Mima","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan3706","article-title":"Gut microbiome influences efficacy of PD-1-based immunotherapy against epithelial tumors","volume":"359","author":"Routy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.2147\/OTT.S218004","article-title":"Comparison of Gut Microbiome in Human Colorectal Cancer in Paired Tumor and Adjacent Normal Tissues","volume":"13","author":"Sheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"OncoTargets Ther."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2025.102820","article-title":"The role of intratumoral microbiome in the occurrence, proliferation, metastasis of colorectal cancer and its underlying therapeutic strategies","volume":"111","author":"Liao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-023-01134-z","article-title":"Intratumoural microbiota: From theory to clinical application","volume":"21","author":"Ji","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aah3648","article-title":"Patients with familial adenomatous polyposis harbor colonic biofilms containing tumorigenic bacteria","volume":"359","author":"Dejea","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00631-9","article-title":"Akkermansia muciniphila: Paradigm for next-generation beneficial microorganisms","volume":"19","author":"Cani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-024-04984-4","article-title":"Multi-omic profiling reveals associations between the gut microbiome, host genome, and transcriptome in patients with colorectal cancer","volume":"22","author":"Zou","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-07046-5","article-title":"Gastric microbiome in gastric cancer sequence depicts diverse microbial structures associated with cancer risk and prognosis","volume":"23","author":"Shimogama","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1608-2","article-title":"The fungal mycobiome promotes pancreatic oncogenesis via activation of MBL","volume":"574","author":"Aykut","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matsumoto, Y., Hitaka, Y., Hirata, H., Yamamoto, Y., Kobayashi, K., Isoyama, N., Matsubara, T., Watanabe, K., Mizukami, Y., and Nakagawa, S. (2025). Exploration of predictive factors based on oral and intestinal bacterial flora for treating patients with urothelial carcinoma. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0324814"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad1329","article-title":"Anticancer immunotherapy by CTLA-4 blockade relies on the gut microbiota","volume":"350","author":"Pitt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090331","article-title":"PD-1 and its ligands in tolerance and immunity","volume":"26","author":"Keir","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-018-0928-4","article-title":"Role of the tumor microenvironment in PD-L1\/PD-1-mediated tumor immune escape","volume":"18","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-022-01273-9","article-title":"Gut microbiota influence immunotherapy responses: Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies","volume":"15","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01655-5","article-title":"Intestinal Akkermansia muciniphila predicts clinical response to PD-1 blockade in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer","volume":"28","author":"Derosa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1988","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-320105","article-title":"A purified membrane protein from Akkermansia muciniphila or the pasteurized bacterium blunts colitis-associated tumourigenesis by modulation of CD8+ T cells in mice","volume":"69","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2949","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S304515","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles from Akkermansia muciniphila Elicit Antitumor Immunity Against Prostate Cancer via Modulation of CD8+ T Cells and Macrophages","volume":"16","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, L., Wu, B., Sun, T., Sun, H., Ma, J., Liu, X., Zhou, D., and Yang, S. (2025). Excess Cholesterol Biosynthesis by Up-Regulated HMGCS1 in Colorectal Cancer Cells Induced M2-Like Tumor-Associated Macrophage Polarization Via Extracellular Vesicles. Cancer Res. Treat., ahead of print.","DOI":"10.4143\/crt.2025.550"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11053","article-title":"Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography","volume":"486","author":"Yatsunenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac4255","article-title":"Commensal Bifidobacterium promotes antitumor immunity and facilitates anti-PD-L1 efficacy","volume":"350","author":"Sivan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, Y.F., Fan, Z.Y., Zhou, B., and Zhan, H.X. (2023). Role of the intratumoral microbiome in tumor progression and therapeutic implications. Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Rev. Cancer, 1878.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2023.189014"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2020.01.019","article-title":"Mutagenesis by Microbe: The Role of the Microbiota in Shaping the Cancer Genome","volume":"6","author":"Barrett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Integrative HMP (iHMP) Research Network Consortium (2019). The Integrative Human Microbiome Project. Nature, 569, 641\u2013648.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1238-8"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-024-04917-1","article-title":"Unraveling metagenomics through long-read sequencing: A comprehensive review","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1089\/omi.2024.0130","article-title":"Metatranscriptomics: A Tool for Clinical Metagenomics","volume":"28","author":"Tyagi","year":"2024","journal-title":"OMICS J. Integr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0047023","DOI":"10.1128\/msphere.00470-23","article-title":"Host DNA depletion methods and genome-centric metagenomics of bovine hindmilk microbiome","volume":"9","author":"Duarte","year":"2024","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-023-01979-2","article-title":"Spatial metatranscriptomics resolves host\u2013bacteria\u2013fungi interactomes","volume":"42","author":"Shalev","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"209","article-title":"Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries","volume":"71","author":"Sung","year":"2021","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(90)90186-I","article-title":"A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis","volume":"61","author":"Fearon","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)32319-0","article-title":"Colorectal cancer","volume":"394","author":"Dekker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3967","article-title":"The consensus molecular subtypes of colorectal cancer","volume":"21","author":"Guinney","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-019-0189-8","article-title":"Global burden of colorectal cancer: Emerging trends, risk factors and prevention strategies","volume":"16","author":"Keum","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2014.12.035","article-title":"Nutrients, foods, and colorectal cancer prevention","volume":"148","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2018.03.004","article-title":"The Intestinal Microbiota in Colorectal Cancer","volume":"33","author":"Tilg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2010.01.025","article-title":"Immunity, inflammation, and cancer","volume":"140","author":"Grivennikov","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0014-x","article-title":"Understanding the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) for effective therapy","volume":"24","author":"Binnewies","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1200\/EDBK_200929","article-title":"Molecular Subtypes and the Evolution of Treatment Decisions in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer","volume":"38","author":"Dienstmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. Educ. Book"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.07.012","article-title":"Fusobacterium nucleatum promotes colorectal carcinogenesis by modulating E-cadherin\/\u03b2-catenin signaling via its FadA adhesin","volume":"14","author":"Rubinstein","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2138","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201243072","article-title":"Mouse TIGIT inhibits NK-cell cytotoxicity upon interaction with PVR","volume":"43","author":"Stanietsky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1038\/cdd.2012.141","article-title":"Recruitment of Grb2 and SHIP1 by the ITT-like motif of TIGIT suppresses granule polarization and cytotoxicity of NK cells","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2015.01.010","article-title":"Binding of the Fap2 protein of Fusobacterium nucleatum to human inhibitory receptor TIGIT protects tumors from immune cell attack","volume":"42","author":"Gur","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00312-6","article-title":"Targeting the NF-\u03baB pathway for the therapy of diseases: Mechanism and clinical study","volume":"5","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-018-0621-5","article-title":"NF-\u03baB signaling and its relevance to the treatment of mantle cell lymphoma","volume":"11","author":"Balaji","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., and Zhang, Y. (2022). Intratumor microbiome in cancer progression: Current developments, challenges and future trends. Biomark. Res., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40364-022-00381-5"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-17-1134","article-title":"The Pancreatic Cancer Microbiome Promotes Oncogenesis by Induction of Innate and Adaptive Immune Suppression","volume":"8","author":"Pushalkar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bellotti, R., Speth, C., Adolph, T.E., Lass-Fl\u00f6rl, C., Effenberger, M., \u00d6fner, D., and Maglione, M. (2021). Micro- and Mycobiota Dysbiosis in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Development. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13143431"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.4251\/wjgo.v15.i5.713","article-title":"Intratumour microbiome of pancreatic cancer","volume":"15","author":"Guan","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06701-1","article-title":"Airway microbiota-associated D-phenylalanine promotes non-small cell lung cancer metastasis through epithelial-mesenchymal transition","volume":"23","author":"Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-physiol-021115-105238","article-title":"The Microbiome and the Respiratory Tract","volume":"78","author":"Dickson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"8","article-title":"Infectious complications in patients with lung cancer","volume":"17","author":"Akinosoglou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, G., Gail, M.H., Consonni, D., Carugno, M., Humphrys, M., Pesatori, A.C., Caporaso, N.E., Goedert, J.J., Ravel, J., and Landi, M.T. (2016). Characterizing human lung tissue microbiota and its relationship to epidemiological and clinical features. Genome Biol., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-016-1021-1"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"3111","article-title":"Discovery and validation of potential bacterial biomarkers for lung cancer","volume":"5","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2016.10.016","article-title":"Characterization of microbiome in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with lung cancer compared with benign mass-like lesions","volume":"102","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-20-0263","article-title":"Lower Airway Dysbiosis Affects Lung Cancer Progression","volume":"11","author":"Tsay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teruya, H., Higa, F., Akamine, M., Ishikawa, C., Okudaira, T., Tomimori, K., Mukaida, N., Tateyama, M., Heuner, K., and Fujita, J. (2007). Mechanisms of Legionella pneumophila-induced interleukin-8 expression in human lung epithelial cells. BMC Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-7-102"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.021908.132603","article-title":"HMGB1 and RAGE in inflammation and cancer","volume":"28","author":"Sims","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4046","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-13-0495","article-title":"HMGB1 in cancer: Good, bad, or both?","volume":"19","author":"Kang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2319","DOI":"10.2174\/138920112803341860","article-title":"The physiological characteristics and transcytosis mechanisms of the blood-brain barrier (BBB)","volume":"13","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10493-6","article-title":"Tumor-associated reactive astrocytes aid the evolution of an immunosuppressive environment in glioblastoma","volume":"10","author":"Ravi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2013.08.003","article-title":"Tryptophan catabolites from microbiota engage aryl hydrocarbon receptor and balance mucosal reactivity via interleukin-22","volume":"39","author":"Zelante","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7846","DOI":"10.1080\/21655979.2022.2049959","article-title":"The role of gut microbiota in patients with benign and malignant brain tumors: A pilot study","volume":"13","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioengineered"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, H., Wang, Y., Han, M., Wang, L., Li, X., Kuang, X., Du, J., and Peng, F. (2024). Multi-omics-based investigation of Bifidobacterium\u2019s inhibitory effect on glioma: Regulation of tumor and gut microbiota, and MEK\/ERK cascade. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1344284"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e58","DOI":"10.1002\/imt2.58","article-title":"Metabolite profiling of human-originated Lachnospiraceae at the strain level","volume":"1","author":"Abdugheni","year":"2022","journal-title":"iMeta"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20021683","article-title":"Immunotherapy of cytotoxic T cell-resistant tumors by T helper 2 cells: An eotaxin and STAT6-dependent process","volume":"197","author":"Mattes","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baj, A., Moro, E., Bistoletti, M., Orlandi, V., Crema, F., and Giaroni, C. (2019). Glutamatergic Signaling Along The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20061482"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patrizz, A., Dono, A., Zorofchian, S., Hines, G., Takayasu, T., Husein, N., Otani, Y., Arevalo, O., Choi, H.A., and Savarraj, J. (2020). Glioma and temozolomide-induced alterations in gut microbiome. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-77919-w"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-022-00748-6","article-title":"A new horizon of precision medicine: Combination of the microbiome and extracellular vesicles","volume":"54","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheung, S.Y.A., Hay, J.L., Lin, Y.W., de Greef, R., and Bullock, J. (2024). Pediatric oncology drug development and dosage optimization. Front. Oncol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2023.1235947"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2382075","DOI":"10.1080\/20450885.2024.2382075","article-title":"Immune checkpoint inhibitors in pediatric patients with melanoma: A systematic literature review","volume":"11","author":"Vyas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Melanoma Manag."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6782","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.6782","article-title":"Targeted therapies in children with renal cell carcinoma (RCC): An International Society of Pediatric Oncology-Renal Tumor Study Group (SIOP-RTSG)-related retrospective descriptive study","volume":"13","author":"Sprokkerieft","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Xue, J., Zhou, X., You, M., Du, Q., Yang, X., He, J., Zou, J., Cheng, L., and Li, M. (2014). Oral microbiota distinguishes acute lymphoblastic leukemia pediatric hosts from healthy populations. PLoS ONE, 9, Correction in PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e110449.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0110449"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oldenburg, M., R\u00fcchel, N., Janssen, S., Borkhardt, A., and G\u00f6ssling, K.L. (2021). The Microbiome in Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13194947"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajagopala, S.V., Yooseph, S., Harkins, D.M., Moncera, K.J., Zabokrtsky, K.B., Torralba, M.G., Tovchigrechko, A., Highlander, S.K., Pieper, R., and Sender, L. (2016). Gastrointestinal microbial populations can distinguish pediatric and adolescent Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) at the time of disease diagnosis. BMC Genom., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-016-2965-y"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy153","article-title":"Gut Microbiome Composition Predicts Infection Risk During Chemotherapy in Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia","volume":"67","author":"Hakim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Zeng, X., Yang, X., Que, J., Du, Q., Zhang, Q., and Zou, J. (2021). Oral Health, Caries Risk Profiles, and Oral Microbiome of Pediatric Patients with Leukemia Submitted to Chemotherapy. BioMed Res. Int., 2021.","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6637503"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.32942","article-title":"Gastrointestinal toxicity during induction treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: The impact of the gut microbiota","volume":"147","author":"Ingham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dikeocha, I.J., Al-Kabsi, A.M., Chiu, H.T., and Alshawsh, M.A. (2022). Faecalibacterium prausnitzii Ameliorates Colorectal Tumorigenesis and Suppresses Proliferation of HCT116 Colorectal Cancer Cells. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10051128"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23981","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.23981","article-title":"HPV infections in retinoblastoma: A systematic review","volume":"35","author":"Soltani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1080\/08880010490457060","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in Childhood and Adolescence: A Single Institution\u2019s Experience with Treatment Modalities During the Last 15 Years","volume":"21","author":"Polychronopoulou","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/0046-8177(90)90049-B","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal carcinoma in children: Retrospective review and demonstration of Epstein-Barr viral genomes in tumor cell cytoplasm: A report of the Pediatric Oncology Group","volume":"21","author":"Hawkins","year":"1990","journal-title":"Hum. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, X., Du, X., Cui, X., Fan, R., Pan, J., and Wang, Z. (2024). Oral microbiome characteristics in patients with pediatric solid tumor. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1286522"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Chen, Y., Yao, W., Zhang, P., Wang, X., Qu, G., Ren, Z., and Wang, J. (2025). Gut microbiome and serum metabolome alterations in osteosarcoma patients. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1616603"}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/21\/3426\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T02:35:46Z","timestamp":1761705346000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/21\/3426"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers17213426"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers17213426","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]]}}}