{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T00:19:43Z","timestamp":1791505183418,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764115200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glioblastoma is the most common and lethal type of tumor of the central nervous system, with an average survival of 15 months after first diagnosis. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have been largely investigated for their ability to harness the immune system to combat tumors. However, their efficacy varies a lot depending on tumor type. In glioblastoma, PD-1\/PD-L1 immunotherapy has been explored in various studies; however, the unique immunosuppressive environment in the brain and the presence of the blood\u2013brain barrier as well as the large intratumoral heterogeneity have limited its efficacy considerably. In order to improve the clinical efficacy of ICIs, it is important to delve into the different factors affecting the response rate in GBM. Herewith, we summarize the most common causes of resistance to anti-PD-1\/PD-L1 immunotherapy as well as possible ways of enhancing its efficacy, particularly through combination with other therapeutic agents in the preclinical and clinical setting. Furthermore, we provide an insight into the most promising methods for modulating the blood\u2013brain barrier, as well as the growing role of molecular imaging and radiogenomics in this field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17233777","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T11:43:22Z","timestamp":1764157402000},"page":"3777","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Immunotherapy for Glioblastoma: A Focus on PD-1\/PD-L1 Inhibitors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4655-9726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasiliki","family":"Zoi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurosurgical Institute, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vasiliki","family":"Galani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2184-4945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chrissa","family":"Sioka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurosurgical Institute, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"},{"name":"Nuclear Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0257-4481","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgios A.","family":"Alexiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurosurgical Institute, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0370-1024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athanassios P.","family":"Kyritsis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurosurgical Institute, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angom, R.S., Nakka, N.M.R., and Bhattacharya, S. (2023). Advances in glioblastoma therapy: An update on current approaches. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13111536"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-024-01226-x","article-title":"Immunotherapy for glioblastoma: Current state, challenges, and future perspectives","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.5306\/wjco.v14.i4.138","article-title":"Immunotherapy in glioblastoma treatment: Current state and future prospects","volume":"14","author":"Lemos","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharpe, M.A., Baskin, D.S., Johnson, R.D., and Baskin, A.M. (2023). Acquisition of immune privilege in GBM tumors: Role of prostaglandins and bile salts. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24043198"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"vdad009","article-title":"Tumor microenvironment in glioblastoma: Current and emerging concepts","volume":"5","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurooncol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1038\/s41698-025-00920-x","article-title":"Exploring tumor-associated macrophages in glioblastoma: From diversity to therapy","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Precis. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e163446","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI163446","article-title":"Macrophages and microglia in glioblastoma: Heterogeneity, plasticity, and therapy","volume":"133","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nec.2009.08.012","article-title":"The role of Tregs in glioma-mediated immunosuppression: Potential target for intervention","volume":"21","author":"Humphries","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wainwright, D.A., Dey, M., Chang, A., and Lesniak, M.S. (2013). Targeting Tregs in malignant brain cancer: Overcoming IDO. Front. Immunol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00116"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2582","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22885-8","article-title":"Targeting Treg cells with GITR activation alleviates resistance to immunotherapy in murine glioblastomas","volume":"12","author":"Amoozgar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mi, Y., Guo, N., Luan, J., Cheng, J., Hu, Z., Jiang, P., Jin, W., and Gao, X. (2020). The emerging role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the glioma immune suppressive microenvironment. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00737"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabm5214","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm5214","article-title":"Distinct myeloid-derived suppressor cell populations in human glioblastoma","volume":"387","author":"Jackson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Essakhi, N., Bertucci, A., Baeza-Kallee, N., Colin, C., Lavignolle-Heguy, R., Garcia-Gonzalez, P., Arg\u00fcello, R.J., Tchoghandjian, A., and Tabouret, E. (2024). Metabolic adaptation of myeloid cells in the glioblastoma microenvironment. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1431112"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Li, X., Wu, Y., Hong, J., and Zhang, M. (2023). The prognostic significance of tumor-associated neutrophils and circulating neutrophils in glioblastoma (WHO CNS5 classification). BMC Cancer, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-022-10492-9"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2024.08.008","article-title":"Glioblastoma induces the recruitment and differentiation of dendritic-like \u201chybrid\u201d neutrophils from skull bone marrow","volume":"42","author":"Lad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardam, B., Gargett, T., Brown, M.P., and Ebert, L.M. (2023). Targeting the dendritic cell\u2013T cell axis to develop effective immunotherapies for glioblastoma. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1261257"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feldman, L. (2024). Hypoxia within the glioblastoma tumor microenvironment: A master saboteur of novel treatments. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1384249"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, L. (2021). Modulation of the blood\u2013brain barrier for drug delivery to brain. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13122024"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1038\/s41568-019-0205-x","article-title":"The blood\u2013brain barrier and blood\u2013tumour barrier in brain tumours and metastases","volume":"20","author":"Arvanitis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1308345","article-title":"Bevacizumab plus radiotherapy\u2013temozolomide for newly diagnosed glioblastoma","volume":"370","author":"Chinot","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranon.2024.102115","article-title":"Tumor perfusion enhancement by focused ultrasound-induced blood\u2013brain barrier opening to potentiate anti-PD-1 immunotherapy of glioma","volume":"49","author":"Shan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transl. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Englander, Z.K., Wei, H.J., Pouliopoulos, A.N., Bendau, E., Upadhyayula, P., Jan, C.I., Spinazzi, E.F., Yoh, N., Tazhibi, M., and McQuillan, N.M. (2021). Focused ultrasound mediated blood\u2013brain barrier opening is safe and feasible in a murine pontine glioma model. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85180-y"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-015-0451-y","article-title":"Focused ultrasound-induced blood-brain barrier opening to enhance interleukin-12 delivery for brain tumor immunotherapy: A preclinical feasibility study","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fletcher, S.M.P., Chisholm, A., Lavelle, M., Guthier, R., Zhang, Y., Power, C., and Berbeco, R. (2024). A study combining microbubble-mediated focused ultrasound and radiation therapy in the healthy rat brain and a F98 glioma model. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-55442-6"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4698","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-48326-w","article-title":"Ultrasound-mediated delivery of doxorubicin to the brain results in immune modulation and improved responses to PD-1 blockade in gliomas","volume":"15","author":"Arrieta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79401","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.12708","article-title":"Delivery of a peptide\u2013drug conjugate targeting the blood\u2013brain barrier improved the efficacy of paclitaxel against glioma","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.bioconjchem.5c00137","article-title":"Transferrin Receptor-Targeted Aptamer-Drug Conjugate Overcomes Blood-Brain Barrier for Potent Glioblastoma Therapy","volume":"36","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioconjugate Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"198","article-title":"Enhanced proton treatment with a LDLR-ligand peptide-conjugated gold nanoparticles targeting the tumor microenvironment in an infiltrative brain tumor model","volume":"12","author":"Seo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, L., Zhao, X., Fu, T., Li, K., He, Y., Luo, Z., Dai, L., Zeng, R., and Cai, K. (2020). An iRGD-conjugated prodrug micelle with blood-brain-barrier penetrability for anti-glioma therapy. Biomaterials, 230.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2019.119666"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.149233","article-title":"Catalytic nanoreactors promote GLUT1-mediated BBB permeation by generating nitric oxide for potentiating glioblastoma ferroptosis","volume":"483","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9743","DOI":"10.1007\/s12274-023-5568-3","article-title":"LAT1 targeted brain delivery of temozolomide and sorafenib for effective glioma therapy","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nano Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.1c08120","article-title":"Smart Nanomedicine to Enable Crossing Blood-Brain Barrier Delivery of Checkpoint Blockade Antibody for Immunotherapy of Glioma","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gampa, G., Kenchappa, R.S., Mohammad, A.S., Parrish, K.E., Kim, M., Crish, J.F., Luu, A., West, R., Hinojosa, A.Q., and Sarkaria, J.N. (2020). Enhancing brain retention of a KIF11 inhibitor significantly improves its efficacy in a mouse model of glioblastoma. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-63494-7"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neo.2018.05.001","article-title":"Improved brain penetration and antitumor efficacy of temozolomide by inhibition of ABCB1 and ABCG2","volume":"20","author":"Buckle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neoplasia"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2022.10.051","article-title":"A Pt(IV)-conjugated brain penetrant macrocyclic peptide shows pre-clinical efficacy in glioblastoma","volume":"352","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1525243","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402X.2018.1525243","article-title":"Effect of combined anti-PD-1 and temozolomide therapy in glioblastoma","volume":"8","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2018.05.064","article-title":"Temozolomide combined with PD-1 Antibody therapy for mouse orthotopic glioma model","volume":"501","author":"Dai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noz015","article-title":"Modulation of temozolomide dose differentially affects T-cell response to immune checkpoint inhibition","volume":"21","author":"Karachi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"107255","article-title":"Dual-action nanotherapy: Temozolomide-loaded, anti-PD-L1 scFv-functionalized lipid nanocarriers for targeted glioblastoma therapy","volume":"213","author":"Aytekin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. Off. J. Eur. Fed. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrobp.2012.12.025","article-title":"Anti-PD-1 blockade and stereotactic radiation produce long-term survival in mice with intracranial gliomas","volume":"86","author":"Zeng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-15-1535","article-title":"Combination Therapy with Anti-PD-1, Anti-TIM-3, and Focal Radiation Results in Regression of Murine Gliomas","volume":"23","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cocito, C., Branchtein, M., Zhou, X.K., Gongora, T., Dahmane, N., and Greenfield, J.P. (2025). Single-dose radiotherapy is more effective than fractionation when combined with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in glioblastoma. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-06909-7"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-025-02427-7","article-title":"Combined anti-PD-L1 and anti-VEGFR2 therapy promotes the antitumor immune response in GBM by reprogramming tumor microenvironment","volume":"11","author":"Yao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2020.1024","article-title":"Effect of Nivolumab vs Bevacizumab in Patients With Recurrent Glioblastoma: The CheckMate 143 Phase 3 Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"6","author":"Reardon","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/nox208","article-title":"Nivolumab with or without ipilimumab in patients with recurrent glioblastoma: Results from exploratory phase I cohorts of CheckMate 143","volume":"20","author":"Omuro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noac099","article-title":"Radiotherapy combined with nivolumab or temozolomide for newly diagnosed glioblastoma with unmethylated MGMT promoter: An international randomized phase III trial","volume":"25","author":"Omuro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noae058","article-title":"NRG-BN002: Phase I study of ipilimumab, nivolumab, and the combination in patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma","volume":"26","author":"Sloan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e817","DOI":"10.1093\/oncolo\/oyad095","article-title":"Hypofractionated Stereotactic Re-irradiation and Anti-PDL1 Durvalumab Combination in Recurrent Glioblastoma: STERIMGLI Phase I Results","volume":"28","author":"Pouessel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2016-0419","article-title":"Safety and Tolerability of PD-1\/PD-L1 Inhibitors Compared with Chemotherapy in Patients with Advanced Cancer: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Nishijima","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noac116","article-title":"Phase III trial of chemoradiotherapy with temozolomide plus nivolumab or placebo for newly diagnosed glioblastoma with methylated MGMT promoter","volume":"24","author":"Lim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3950","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-56930-7","article-title":"Improved overall survival in an anti-PD-L1 treated cohort of newly diagnosed glioblastoma patients is associated with distinct immune, mutation, and gut microbiome features: A single arm prospective phase I\/II trial","volume":"16","author":"Weathers","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"v67","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noad179.0263","article-title":"Safety run-in results of a phase I\/II study to evaluate atezolizumab in combination with cabozantinib in patients with recurrent glioblastoma","volume":"25","author":"Weathers","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"U.S. National Library of Medicine (2025, October 15). A Phase I Trial of Anti-TIGIT Antibody AB154 in Combination with Anti-PD-1 Antibody AB122 for Recurrent Glioblastoma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04729959."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins (2025, October 15). A Phase I Trial of Anti-Tim-3 in Combination with Anti-PD-1 and SRS in Recurrent GBM, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03961971."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Omuro, A. (2025, October 15). A Multi-Center Phase 0\/I Trial of Anti-TIGIT Antibody AB154 in Combination with Anti-PD-1 Antibody AB122 for Recurrent Glioblastoma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04656535."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins (2025, October 15). A Phase I Trial of Anti-LAG-3 or Anti-CD137 Alone and in Combination with Anti-PD-1 in Patients with Recurrent GBM, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02658981."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, G., Braga, M.C., Da Pieve, C., Szopa, W., Starzetz, T., Plate, K.H., Kaspera, W., and Kramer-Marek, G. (2023). Immuno-PET Imaging of Tumour PD-L1 Expression in Glioblastoma. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15123131"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.89206","article-title":"[89Zr]-CD8 ImmunoPET imaging of glioblastoma multiforme response to combination oncolytic viral and checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy reveals CD8 infiltration differential changes in preclinical models","volume":"14","author":"Gallegos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincze, S.R., Jaswal, A.P., Frederico, S.C., Nisnboym, M., Li, B., Xiong, Z., Sever, R.E., Sneiderman, C.T., Rodgers, M., and Day, K.E. (2024). ImmunoPET imaging of TIGIT in the glioma microenvironment. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-55296-y"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6268","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.98163","article-title":"Preoperative PET imaging and fluorescence-guided surgery of human glioblastoma using dual-labeled antibody targeting ETA receptors in a preclinical mouse model: A theranostic approach","volume":"14","author":"Hautiere","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2419395","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202419395","article-title":"Hierarchical targeting nanoplatform for NIR-II photoacoustic imaging and photo-activated synergistic immunotherapy of glioblastoma","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19753","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c03378","article-title":"Tumor Microenvironment Activated Photoacoustic-Fluorescence Bimodal Nanoprobe for Precise Chemo-immunotherapy and Immune Response Tracing of Glioblastoma","volume":"17","author":"Zeng","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06101-5","article-title":"Radiogenomics and machine learning predict oncogenic signaling pathways in glioblastoma","volume":"23","author":"Ahanger","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/s43856-025-00767-0","article-title":"The radiogenomic and spatiogenomic landscapes of glioblastoma and their relationship to oncogenic drivers","volume":"5","author":"Kazerooni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Commun. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa043331","article-title":"MGMT Gene Silencing and Benefit from Temozolomide in Glioblastoma","volume":"352","author":"Hegi","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0349-y","article-title":"Immune and genomic correlates of response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in glioblastoma","volume":"25","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwang, S., Lim, J., Kang, H., Jeong, J.-Y., Joung, J.-G., Heo, J., Jung, D., Cho, K., and Jung, H. (2023). An Predictive biomarkers for the responsiveness of recurrent glioblastomas to activated killer cell immunotherapy. Cell Biosci., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-023-00961-4"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tong, M., Xu, Z., Wang, L., Chen, H., Wan, X., Xu, H., Yang, S., and Tu, Q. (2025). An analysis of prognostic risk and immunotherapy response of glioblastoma patients based on single-cell landscape and nitrogen metabolism. Neurobiol. Dis., 211.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2025.106935"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A3253","article-title":"Probabilistic radiographic atlas of glioblastoma phenotypes","volume":"34","author":"Ellingson","year":"2013","journal-title":"AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4724","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-16-1871","article-title":"In Vivo Detection of EGFRvIII in Glioblastoma via Perfusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging Signature Consistent with Deep Peritumoral Infiltration: The \u03c6-Index","volume":"23","author":"Bakas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1080\/10543406.2023.2236216","article-title":"Incorporating patient-reported outcomes in dose-finding clinical trials with continuous patient enrollment","volume":"35","author":"Andrillon","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Biopharm. Stat."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1080\/14740338.2017.1273898","article-title":"The Safety of available immunotherapy for the treatment of glioblastoma","volume":"16","author":"Farber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"2","article-title":"591 In-situ vaccination by tumor treating fields and anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in patients with large residual GBM results in robust T cell selection and expansion, high response rate, and extended survival","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/23\/3777\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T11:55:46Z","timestamp":1764158146000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/17\/23\/3777"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers17233777"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers17233777","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]]}}}