{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T17:37:01Z","timestamp":1787161021179,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":164,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is a biologically heterogeneous malignancy accounting for 3% of adult cancers globally. Despite advances in immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-targeted therapies, durable disease control remains elusive for many patients. Increasing evidence implicates the acidic tumour microenvironment (TME) as a critical mediator of RCC progression, immune evasion, and therapeutic resistance. Solid tumours, including RCC, exhibit reversed pH gradients, characterised by acidic extracellular (pH 6.2\u20136.9) and alkaline intracellular conditions. This dysregulation arises from enhanced glycolysis, hypoxia-driven lactate accumulation, and the overexpression of pH-regulating enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase (CA9). Acidic TMEs impair cytotoxic T-cell and NK-cell activity, promote tumour-associated macrophage (TAM) polarisation towards an immunosuppressive phenotype, and upregulate alternative immune checkpoints. These mechanisms collectively undermine ICI efficacy and contribute to primary and secondary treatment resistance. Proton-sensing G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), notably GPR65, have emerged as pivotal mediators linking extracellular acidosis to immune dysfunction. Preclinical studies demonstrate that GPR65 antagonists restore anti-tumour immune activity by reversing acidosis-driven immunosuppression and enhancing antigen processing. In RCC models, selective GPR65 inhibitors have shown the ability to reduce immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 production, induce immunoproteasome activation, and synergise with anti-PD-1 therapy. The first-in-class GPR65 inhibitor, PTT-4256, is now under evaluation in the Phase I\/II RAISIC-1 trial (NCT06634849) in solid tumours, including RCC. Targeting acid-sensing pathways represents a novel and promising therapeutic strategy in RCC, aiming to remodel the TME and overcome ICI resistance. Integrating GPR65 inhibition with existing immunotherapies may define the next era of RCC management, warranting continued translational and clinical investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17233883","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T15:14:06Z","timestamp":1764861246000},"page":"3883","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Low pH, High Stakes: A Narrative Review Exploring the Acid-Sensing GPR65 Pathway as a Novel Approach in Renal Cell Carcinoma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Michael","family":"Grant","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"St Bartholomew\u2019s Hospital, London EC1A 7BE, UK"},{"name":"Weatherden Limited, London WC1V 6DF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6492-3141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Cipriani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited, Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alastair","family":"Corbin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited, Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9656-3024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited, Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alan","family":"Naylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited, Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart","family":"Hughes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited, Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited, Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sumeet","family":"Ambarkhane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathios Therapeutics Limited, Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3510-0170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danish","family":"Memon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecule to Medicine, Oxford OX1 4PS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Millward","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Western Australia and Linear Clinical Research, Perth, WA 6009, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sumanta","family":"Pal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1360-348X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignacio","family":"Melero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"361","article-title":"Renal Cancer","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Coggan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Consult: Expertise in Clinical Practice, Volume 1: Solid Tumors & Supportive Care"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfae036","article-title":"Global epidemiology of kidney cancer","volume":"39","author":"Cirillo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nephrol. 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