{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,11]],"date-time":"2025-12-11T05:25:14Z","timestamp":1765430714961,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765238400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R00HG011490"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R00HG011490"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000950","name":"Cancer Council SA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["1138776"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1138776"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000950","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"University of Adelaide International Scholarship and the Hans-J\u00fcrgen & Marianne Ohff Research Grant"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["U01CA265719"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01CA265719"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer death, and the incidence and mortality rates among young adults are rising. Although a subset of CRC cases presents with a family history, suggesting a hereditary component, the specific genetic underpinnings remain incompletely understood, particularly in early-onset CRC (EOCRC). This study aimed to discover novel risk genes for EOCRC using exome sequencing and gene-based rare variant burden testing. Methods: Our cohort consisted of 212 European-ancestry cases (174 diagnosed with CRC and 38 with significant polyps) from the South Australian Young Onset Colorectal Polyp and Cancer Study (SAYO) and 31,699 unaffected controls from the Simons Foundation Powering Autism Research for Knowledge (SPARK) cohort. After filtering for ancestry, relatedness, variant quality, and population allele frequency, we performed gene-set and individual-gene burden tests using predicted deleterious missense and loss-of-function variants. Statistical significance was assessed using permutation-corrected binomial testing. An independent validation was conducted in the UK Biobank. Results: Loss-of-function variants in known CRC tumor suppressor genes were significantly enriched in SAYO cases. Gene-level analyses identified MEIKIN as a novel EOCRC susceptibility candidate (p value = 1.0 \u00d7 10\u22127), with supporting enrichment of deleterious missense and loss-of-function variants in distal colon cancer cases from the UK Biobank. Additional genes (STK25, PGBD4, DIRAS3, ATG3, RPS6KA4, and DDX42) demonstrated borderline significance, implicating pathways related to kinetochore assembly, autophagy regulation, and immune signaling. Both predicted gain-of-function and loss-of-function variants contributed to the EOCRC risk, supporting heterogeneous mechanisms of CRC pathogenesis. Conclusions: This study identified novel candidate risk genes for EOCRC, underscoring the role of rare variants and expanding our understanding of the genetic architecture of CRC. Future studies should include functional validation and replication studies on other ancestries to confirm and extend these results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17243931","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T09:54:55Z","timestamp":1765274095000},"page":"3931","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Identification of Novel Susceptibility Genes for Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer Through Germline Rare Variant Burden Testing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Ruocen","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Reger R.","family":"Mikaeel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8249-0213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhongping","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mehgan","family":"Horsnell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Haematology and Oncology, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville, SA 5011, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2937-863X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wendy","family":"Uylaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Haematology and Oncology, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville, SA 5011, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weimin","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Outcomes and Biomedical Informatics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9372-3325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola K.","family":"Poplawski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adult Genetics Unit, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bernd","family":"Wollnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Human Genetics, University Medical Center G\u00f6ttingen, 37075 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Human Genetics, University Medical Center G\u00f6ttingen, 37075 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jinghua","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Genetics and Molecular Pathology, SA Pathology, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5813-631X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamish S.","family":"Scott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Genetics and Molecular Pathology, SA Pathology, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yufeng","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1403-0396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Outcomes and Biomedical Informatics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yousong","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Center for Natural Products, Drug Discovery and Development, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6259-185X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xavier","family":"Llor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3438-5685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wendy K.","family":"Chung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children\u2019s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2958-3492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Haematology and Oncology, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville, SA 5011, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3922-2693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timothy J.","family":"Price","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Haematology and Oncology, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville, SA 5011, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joanne P.","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department 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