{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T08:40:56Z","timestamp":1789202456923,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":167,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767139200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82260609"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82260609"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82160583"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82160583"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Graduate Innovation Fund project of Kunming Medical University","award":["2025S249"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025S249"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Advanced prostate cancer, particularly castration-resistant disease, remains challenging to treat due to intratumoral heterogeneity, immune exclusion, and a suppressive tumor microenvironment. Within this ecosystem, cancer-associated fibroblasts shape tumor\u2013stroma communication, but their marked heterogeneity and plasticity complicate classification and make indiscriminate fibroblast depletion potentially ineffective or even harmful. This review summarizes recent progress in fibroblast origins, functional subtypes, and fibroblast-driven mechanisms that promote tumor progression and therapy resistance, as well as emerging therapeutic opportunities in prostate cancer. We conducted a structured literature search of PubMed, ScienceDirect, and major publisher platforms (including Nature and SpringerLink) from database inception to 15 February 2025, supplemented by targeted manual screening of reference lists. Evidence from single-cell\/spatial-omics and mechanistic studies indicates that prostate tumors contain multiple fibroblast programs that occupy distinct niches yet can interconvert. Across these studies, it was found that these fibroblasts contribute to immune suppression, extracellular matrix remodeling and stromal barrier formation, angiogenesis, and metabolic support, collectively limiting drug penetration and reinforcing immune evasion; therapeutic pressure can further rewire fibroblast states and resistance-associated signaling. Overall, the literature supports a shift toward function- and subtype-directed intervention rather than \u201cone-size-fits-all\u201d targeting, with promising directions including precision targeting and reversible reprogramming, rational combination strategies, and localized delivery approaches that reduce stromal barriers while preserving tissue homeostasis in high-risk and treatment-refractory prostate cancer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers18010151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T14:33:25Z","timestamp":1767191605000},"page":"151","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Targeting Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Prostate Cancer: Recent Advances and Therapeutic Opportunities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Peng","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4850-6790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junhao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peiqin","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinni","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-9465-6425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhongsong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Clinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu 610550, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jieming","family":"Zuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongjin","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangyun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Songhong","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanzhi","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0360-1402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haifeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shi","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"229","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA A Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1698","article-title":"Prostate Cancer Cases Might Rise to 3 Million Globally by 2040","volume":"331","author":"Harris","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00651-2","article-title":"The Lancet Commission on prostate cancer: Planning for the surge in cases","volume":"403","author":"James","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6670","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-023-09673-2","article-title":"Prostate cancer screening\u2014Stepping forward with MRI","volume":"33","author":"Padhani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, Z., Lan, X., and Hou, E. (2025). Synergistic potential and challenges of immunotherapy combined with radiotherapy in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: A review of mechanisms and clinical advances. Clin. Transl. Oncol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12094-025-04003-y"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2021.10.012","article-title":"Experimental challenges to modeling prostate cancer heterogeneity","volume":"524","author":"Baena","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO-25-00007","article-title":"Systemic Therapy in Patients With Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: ASCO Guideline Update","volume":"43","author":"Garje","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2023.05.016","article-title":"Antiandrogen treatment induces stromal cell reprogramming to promote castration resistance in prostate cancer","volume":"41","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2022.03.001","article-title":"Targeting CAFs to overcome anticancer therapeutic resistance","volume":"8","author":"Saw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A084","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6074.CRICIMTEATIAACR18-A084","article-title":"Abstract A084: Towards combining androgen deprivation and immunotherapy to prevent progression to castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"7","author":"Krolewski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2021.10.028","article-title":"Fibroblast heterogeneity in prostate carcinogenesis","volume":"525","author":"ChallaSivaKanaka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3394","article-title":"Microenvironmental regulation of tumor progression and metastasis","volume":"19","author":"Quail","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pakula, H., Pederzoli, F., Fanelli, G.N., Nuzzo, P.V., Rodrigues, S., and Loda, M. (2024). Deciphering the Tumor Microenvironment in Prostate Cancer: A Focus on the Stromal Component. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16213685"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2011.312","article-title":"Identification of stromally expressed molecules in the prostate by tag-profiling of cancer-associated fibroblasts, normal fibroblasts and fetal prostate","volume":"31","author":"Orr","year":"2012","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-020-0272-5","article-title":"Interleukin-6 derived from cancer-associated fibroblasts attenuates the p53 response to doxorubicin in prostate cancer cells","volume":"6","author":"Cheteh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3414","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0813144106","article-title":"CXCL14 is an autocrine growth factor for fibroblasts and acts as a multi-modal stimulator of prostate tumor growth","volume":"106","author":"Augsten","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"srep41138","DOI":"10.1038\/srep41138","article-title":"Progression-related loss of stromal Caveolin 1 levels fosters the growth of human PC3 xenografts and mediates radiation resistance","volume":"7","author":"Panic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vitale, G., Caraglia, M., Jung, V., Kamradt, J., Gentilini, D., Di Martino, M.T., Dicitore, A., Abate, M., Tagliaferri, P., and Itro, A. (2022). Molecular Characterization of Cancer Associated Fibroblasts in Prostate Cancer. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14122943"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1007\/s13402-024-00931-z","article-title":"CAFs vs. TECs: When blood feuds fuel cancer progression, dissemination and therapeutic resistance","volume":"47","author":"Coursier","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pawar, J.S., Salam, A., Dipto, S.U., Al-Amin, Y., Salam, M.T., Sengupta, S., Kumari, S., Gujjari, L., and Yadagiri, G. (2025). Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts: Immunosuppressive Crosstalk with Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells and Implications for Therapeutic Resistance. Cancers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17152484"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.37349\/etat.2022.00103","article-title":"Modulation of the antitumor immune response by cancer-associated fibroblasts: Mechanisms and targeting strategies to hamper their immunosuppressive functions","volume":"3","author":"Thiery","year":"2022","journal-title":"Explor. Target. Anti-Tumor Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03347-0","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts induce antigen-specific deletion of CD8+ T Cells to protect tumour cells","volume":"9","author":"Lakins","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1038\/s43018-022-00411-z","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts in the single-cell era","volume":"3","author":"Lavie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-025-14212-x","article-title":"Single-cell sequencing unveils the transcriptomic landscape of castration-resistant prostate cancer-associated fibroblasts and their association with prognosis and immunotherapy response","volume":"25","author":"Qiu","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Cancer"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2009.06.017","article-title":"Polarization of tumor-associated neutrophil pheno-type by TGF-beta: \u201cN1\u201d versus \u201cN2\u201d TAN","volume":"16","author":"Fridlender","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2423","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2013.191","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts and M2-polarized macrophages synergize during prostate carcinoma progression","volume":"33","author":"Comito","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.29938","article-title":"GPR30 knockdown weakens the capacity of CAF in promoting prostate cancer cell invasion via reducing macrophage infiltration and M2 polarization","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-022-05086-z","article-title":"Targeting HIC1\/TGF-\u03b2 axis-shaped prostate cancer microenvironment restrains its progression","volume":"13","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-13-1093","article-title":"FGFR1\u2013WNT\u2013TGF-\u03b2 Signaling in Prostate Cancer Mouse Models Recapitulates Human Reactive Stroma","volume":"74","author":"Carstens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, H., Fang, S., Zhu, X., and Liu, H. (2024). Cancer-associated fibroblasts and prostate cancer stem cells: Crosstalk mechanisms and implications for disease progression. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2024.1412337"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J., Kim, Y., Lee, C., Jeon, S.S., Seo, H., Lee, J., Choi, J., Kang, M., Kim, E., and Shin, K. (2025). Generation of prostate cancer assembloids modeling the patient-specific tumor microenvironment. PLoS Genet., 21.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1011652"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2012.01.007","article-title":"Enzymatic Targeting of the Stroma Ablates Physical Barriers to Treatment of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma","volume":"21","author":"Provenzano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc2714","article-title":"Environment-mediated drug resistance: A major contributor to minimal residual disease","volume":"9","author":"Meads","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Cheng, D., and Li, P. (2025). Androgen receptor dynamics in prostate cancer: From disease progression to treatment resistance. Front. Oncol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2025.1542811"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellsig.2025.111827","article-title":"CAF-mediated tumor vascularization: From mechanistic insights to targeted therapies","volume":"132","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell. Signal."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002304","DOI":"10.37349\/etat.2025.1002304","article-title":"Key immune cells and their crosstalk in the tumor microenvironment of bladder cancer: Insights for innovative therapies","volume":"6","author":"Balkhi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Explor. Target. Anti-Tumor Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vecchiotti, D., Clementi, L., Cornacchia, E., Nolfi, M.D.V., Verzella, D., Capece, D., Zazzeroni, F., and Angelucci, A. (2024). Evidence of the Link between Stroma Remodeling and Prostate Cancer Prognosis. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16183215"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1007\/s10456-024-09941-9","article-title":"PDPN\/CCL2\/STAT3 feedback loop alter CAF heterogeneity to promote angiogenesis in colorectal cancer","volume":"27","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Angiogenesis"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70037","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.70037","article-title":"PDPN+ cancer-associated fibroblasts enhance gastric cancer angiogenesis via AKT\/NF-\u03baB activation and the CCL2-ACKR1 axis","volume":"6","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Medcomm"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-021-00478-0","article-title":"Fibroblast CEBPD\/SDF4 axis in response to chemotherapy-induced angiogenesis through CXCR4","volume":"7","author":"Chi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2025.03.004","article-title":"Conserved spatial subtypes and cellular neighborhoods of cancer-associated fibroblasts revealed by single-cell spatial multi-omics","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20162024","article-title":"Distinct populations of inflammatory fibroblasts and myofibroblasts in pancreatic cancer","volume":"214","author":"Ohlund","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-19-0094","article-title":"Cross-Species Single-Cell Analysis of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Reveals Antigen-Presenting Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts","volume":"9","author":"Elyada","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-19-0644","article-title":"Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Reveals Stromal Evolution into LRRC15+ Myofibroblasts as a Determinant of Patient Response to Cancer Immunotherapy","volume":"10","author":"Dominguez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tplants.2024.03.010","article-title":"Lost in space: What single-cell RNA sequencing cannot tell you","volume":"29","author":"Adema","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9678","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-53908-9","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblast subtypes modulate the tumor-immune microenvironment and are associated with skin cancer malignancy","volume":"15","author":"Forsthuber","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-023-01876-x","article-title":"Pan-cancer spatially resolved single-cell analysis reveals the crosstalk between cancer-associated fibroblasts and tumor microenvironment","volume":"22","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.4103\/1477-3163.83937","article-title":"Androgen receptor signaling in prostate cancer development and progression","volume":"10","author":"Tindall","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Carcinog."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-016-0759-3","article-title":"Targeting persistent androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"33","author":"Graham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"T179","DOI":"10.1530\/ERC-16-0422","article-title":"Androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer: A lesson in persistence","volume":"23","author":"Coutinho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Endocrine-Related Cancer"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2023.216244","article-title":"Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals that HSD17B2 in cancer-associated fibroblasts promotes the development and progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"566","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, T.K., Duong, Q.H., Baylot, V., Fargette, C., Baboudjian, M., Colleaux, L., Ta\u00efeb, D., and Rocchi, P. (2023). Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: From Uncovered Resistance Mechanisms to Current Treatments. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15205047"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brunner, E., Damisch, E., Groninger, M.E., Baschieri, F., Tyckaert, F., Nommensen, L., Neumann, L., Fotakis, G., Trajanoski, Z., and Sch\u00e4fer, G. (2025). Unraveling the YAP1-TGF\u03b21 axis: A key driver of androgen receptor loss in prostate cancer-associated fibroblasts. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-025-03578-2"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s13258-025-01624-z","article-title":"CTHRC1 expresses in cancer-associated fibroblasts and is associated with resistance to anti-androgen therapy in prostate cancer","volume":"47","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Genes Genom."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"PR3","DOI":"10.1158\/1538-7445.TUMIMM2012-PR3","article-title":"Abstract PR3: Myofibroblasts activated upon tissue injury and hypoxia promote development of castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"73","author":"Ammirante","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Chen, R., and Huang, J. (2024). A pan-cancer single-cell transcriptional analysis of antigen-presenting cancer-associated fibroblasts in the tumor microenvironment. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1372432"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2022.04.011","article-title":"Mesothelial cell-derived antigen-presenting cancer-associated fibroblasts induce expansion of regulatory T cells in pancreatic cancer","volume":"40","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-023-04807-y","article-title":"Integrating single-cell and bulk RNA sequencing data unveils antigen presentation and process-related CAFS and establishes a predictive signature in prostate cancer","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-20-4226","article-title":"Molecular Features of Cancer-associated Fibroblast Subtypes and their Implication on Cancer Pathogenesis, Prognosis, and Immunotherapy Resistance","volume":"27","author":"Galbo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-024-00233-8","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts: Heterogeneity, tumorigenicity and therapeutic targets","volume":"5","author":"Lv","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5150","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-07582-3","article-title":"Spatially and functionally distinct subclasses of breast cancer-associated fibroblasts revealed by single cell RNA sequencing","volume":"9","author":"Bartoschek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, J., Ma, Z., Liu, B., Qian, H., Shao, X., Liu, J., Wang, Q., and Xue, W. (2023). Identification of cancer-associated fibroblasts subtypes in prostate cancer. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1133160"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1111\/cas.70133","article-title":"How Do Cancer Cells Create Cancer-Associated Fibroblast Subtypes? Impacts of Extracellular Vesicles on Stromal Diversity","volume":"116","author":"Naito","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"2912","article-title":"Reactive stroma in human prostate cancer: Induction of myofibroblast phenotype and extracellular matrix remodeling","volume":"8","author":"Tuxhorn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16389","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1407097111","article-title":"RUNX1 is essential for mesenchymal stem cell proliferation and myofibroblast differentiation","volume":"111","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1851","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-021-02996-8","article-title":"The role of metabolic reprogramming and de novo amino acid synthesis in collagen protein production by myofibroblasts: Implications for organ fibrosis and cancer","volume":"53","author":"Hamanaka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34611","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000034611","article-title":"Single-cell and bulk RNA sequencing reveal cancer-associated fibroblast heterogeneity and a prognostic signature in prostate cancer","volume":"102","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e010555","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2024-010555","article-title":"Inhibition of stromal MAOA leading activation of WNT5A enhance prostate cancer immunotherapy by involving the transition of cancer-associated fibroblasts","volume":"13","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1766","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.3455","article-title":"ELF3 Mediates IL-1\u03b1 Induced Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells to Inflammatory iCAFs","volume":"39","author":"Tran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8659","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S472124","article-title":"The Mechanism by Which Hedgehog Interacting Protein (HHIP) in Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Regulate the Secretion of Inflammatory Factors Through the JAK1\/STAT3 Pathway Affecting Prostate Cancer Stemness","volume":"17","author":"Wo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Archer, M., Dogra, N., and Kyprianou, N. (2020). Inflammation as a Driver of Prostate Cancer Metastasis and Therapeutic Resistance. Cancers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12102984"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1007\/s10555-024-10186-7","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts: A versatile mediator in tumor progression, metastasis, and targeted therapy","volume":"43","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Metastasis Rev."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-024-02564-6","article-title":"Exploring the role of antigen-presenting cancer-associated fibroblasts and CD74 on the pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma tumor microenvironment","volume":"42","author":"Thomas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2015.02.006","article-title":"Metabolic Reprogramming of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts by IDH3\u03b1 Downregulation","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.107701","article-title":"Epigenetic Reprogramming of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Deregulates Glucose Metabolism and Facilitates Progression of Breast Cancer","volume":"31","author":"Becker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2723","DOI":"10.4161\/cc.25695","article-title":"Oncogenes induce the cancer-associated fibroblast phenotype: Metabolic symbiosis and \u201cfibroblast addiction\u201d are new therapeutic targets for drug discovery","volume":"12","author":"Lisanti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Cycle"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5130","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-12-1949","article-title":"Reciprocal Metabolic Reprogramming through Lactate Shuttle Coordinately Influences Tumor-Stroma Interplay","volume":"72","author":"Fiaschi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-21-0914","article-title":"Lactate Rewires Lipid Metabolism and Sustains a Metabolic\u2013Epigenetic Axis in Prostate Cancer","volume":"82","author":"Ippolito","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4472","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI99397","article-title":"Stromal epigenetic alterations drive metabolic and neuroendocrine prostate cancer reprogramming","volume":"128","author":"Mishra","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8322","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.62378","article-title":"Metabolic reprogramming of cancer-associated fibroblasts and its effect on cancer cell reprogramming","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5339","DOI":"10.1038\/s41388-019-0805-7","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts promote prostate cancer malignancy via metabolic rewiring and mitochondrial transfer","volume":"38","author":"Ippolito","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9050","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-53233-1","article-title":"Iron-loaded cancer-associated fibroblasts induce immunosuppression in prostate cancer","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, F., Zeng, J., Chen, C., Zhao, X., Zhang, T., Thomas, G.V., Sears, R.C., Alumkal, J.J., Moran, A.E., and Mills, G.B. (2024). Deciphering single-cell heterogeneity and cellular ecosystem dynamics during prostate cancer progression. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.12.18.629070"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranon.2024.102255","article-title":"Heterogeneity of cancer-associated fibroblast subpopulations in prostate cancer: Implications for prognosis and immunotherapy","volume":"52","author":"Ding","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transl. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17305\/bjbms.2015.449","article-title":"Prostate cancer stroma: An important factor in cancer growth and progression","volume":"15","author":"Ulamec","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/S0344-0338(96)80093-8","article-title":"Role of Stromal Myofibroblasts Infiltrating Colon Cancer in Tumor Invasion","volume":"192","author":"Martin","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pathol.-Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018703208453","article-title":"The Role of Stroma in Breast Carcinoma Growth In Vivo","volume":"3","author":"Noel","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Mammary Gland. Biol. Neoplasia"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.cellbio.24.110707.175315","article-title":"Navigating ECM Barriers at the Invasive Front: The Cancer Cell\u2013Stroma Interface","volume":"25","author":"Rowe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ju.0000141582.15218.10","article-title":"Molecular insights into prostate cancer progression: The missing link of tumor microenvironment","volume":"173","author":"Chung","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tossetta, G., Fantone, S., Marzioni, D., and Mazzucchelli, R. (2023). Cellular Modulators of the NRF2\/KEAP1 Signaling Pathway in Prostate Cancer. Front. Biosci., 28.","DOI":"10.31083\/j.fbl2807143"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-023-01398-5","article-title":"Interplay of oxidative stress, cellular communication and signaling pathways in cancer","volume":"22","author":"Iqbal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2999","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-13-2740","article-title":"Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Expressing CXCL14 Rely upon NOS1-Derived Nitric Oxide Signaling for Their Tumor-Supporting Properties","volume":"74","author":"Augsten","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1080\/14728222.2023.2248381","article-title":"Targeting HIF-1 for prostate cancer: A synthesis of preclinical evidence","volume":"27","author":"Zohar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Ther. Targets"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, H., Deng, N., Li, Y., Zhong, J., Zou, Z., Pan, Z., Lv, D., Wu, K., Liu, P., and Wang, J. (2025). Spatial transcriptomics and single cell profiling reveal the dynamics of antigen presenting cancer associated fibroblasts during prostate cancer progression. arXiv.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-7219873\/v1"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-022-04371-w","article-title":"Metabolic changes during prostate cancer development and progression","volume":"149","author":"Beier","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57813","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.18175","article-title":"The reverse Warburg effect is likely to be an Achilles\u2019 heel of cancer that can be exploited for cancer therapy","volume":"8","author":"Fu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20240074","DOI":"10.1002\/VIW.20240074","article-title":"Modelling the tumor microenvironment in vitro in prostate cancer: Current and future perspectives","volume":"5","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"View"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.13447","article-title":"Unraveling the intricacies of cancer-associated fibroblasts: A comprehensive review on metabolic reprogramming and tumor microenvironment crosstalk","volume":"132","author":"Ahuja","year":"2024","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc.2016.73","article-title":"The biology and function of fibroblasts in cancer","volume":"16","author":"Kalluri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robinson, B.D., Mosquera, J.M., Ro, J.Y., and Divatia, M. (2018). Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. Precision Molecular Pathology of Prostate Cancer, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-64096-9"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1159\/000477852","article-title":"The Heterogeneity of Prostate Cancer: A Practical Approach","volume":"85","author":"Tolkach","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pathobiology"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4246","DOI":"10.3390\/curroncol30040323","article-title":"Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer, Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors, and Beyond","volume":"30","author":"Lanka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2021.08.033","article-title":"Chemotherapy in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: Current scenario and future perspectives","volume":"523","author":"Font","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imamura, J., Ganguly, S., Muskara, A., Liao, R.S., Nguyen, J.K., Weight, C., Wee, C.E., Gupta, S., and Mian, O.Y. (2023). Lineage plasticity and treatment resistance in prostate cancer: The intersection of genetics, epigenetics, and evolution. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1191311"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2024.109674","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts promote enzalutamide resistance and PD-L1 expression in prostate cancer through CCL5-CCR5 paracrine axis","volume":"27","author":"Xiong","year":"2024","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-025-01485-9","article-title":"PA2G4 in CAFs promotes biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer via H3K18la","volume":"15","author":"Ji","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Biosci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb2756","article-title":"Mechanotransduction and YAP-dependent matrix remodelling is required for the generation and maintenance of cancer-associated fibroblasts","volume":"15","author":"Calvo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10137","article-title":"Role of YAP\/TAZ in mechanotransduction","volume":"474","author":"Dupont","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3222","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-19-3803","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles from Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Containing Annexin A6 Induces FAK-YAP Activation by Stabilizing b1 Integrin, Enhancing Drug Resistance","volume":"80","author":"Uchihara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45595-3","article-title":"Residual ANTXR1+ myofibroblasts after chemotherapy inhibit anti-tumor immunity via YAP1 signaling pathway","volume":"15","author":"Licaj","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3728","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-24-0932","article-title":"YAP1 Inhibition Induces Phenotype Switching of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts to Tumor Suppressive in Prostate Cancer","volume":"84","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2024.217244","article-title":"The role of Hippo\/YAP1 in cancer-associated fibroblasts: Literature review and future perspectives","volume":"604","author":"Athavale","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-020-1542-z","article-title":"YAP1 plays a key role of the conversion of normal fibroblasts into cancer-associated fibroblasts that contribute to prostate cancer progression","volume":"39","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.26530","article-title":"FGFR1\u03b2 is a driver isoform of FGFR1 alternative splicing in breast cancer cells","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2379","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2010.100354","article-title":"Altered Splicing of FGFR1 Is Associated with High Tumor Grade and Stage and Leads to Increased Sensitivity to FGF1 in Bladder Cancer","volume":"177","author":"Tomlinson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1042\/BSR20100020","article-title":"FGF signalling in prostate development, tissue homoeostasis and tumorigenesis","volume":"30","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00005.2020","article-title":"The FGF\/FGFR system in the physiopathology of the prostate gland","volume":"101","author":"Giacomini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70240","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.70240","article-title":"Targeting the cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts with next-generation FGFR inhibitors in prostate cancer co-culture models","volume":"13","author":"Afshan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7342882","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/7342882","article-title":"Identification and Validation of FGF-Related Prognostic Signatures in Prostate Cancer","volume":"2023","author":"Ye","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dis. Markers"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e175949","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI175949","article-title":"Interruption of KLF5 acetylation promotes PTEN-deficient prostate cancer progression by reprogramming cancer-associated fibroblasts","volume":"134","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/15384047.2018.1423926","article-title":"Androgen receptor-independent prostate cancer: An emerging clinical entity","volume":"19","author":"Sahin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, R., Chen, L., Jiang, Z., Yu, M., Zhang, W., Ma, Z., Ji, Y., Shen, K., Xin, Z., and Qi, J. (2022). Comprehensive analysis of androgen receptor status in prostate cancer with neuroendocrine differentiation. Front. Oncol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2022.955166"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2017.09.003","article-title":"Androgen Receptor Pathway-Independent Prostate Cancer Is Sustained through FGF Signaling","volume":"32","author":"Bluemn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24267","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M115.657270","article-title":"Fibroblast-derived Neuregulin 1 Promotes Compensatory ErbB3 Receptor Signaling in Mutant BRAF Melanoma","volume":"290","author":"Capparelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-024-00825-z","article-title":"Targeting the tumor microenvironment, a new therapeutic approach for prostate cancer","volume":"28","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2020.07.007","article-title":"Microenvironment-Mediated Resistance to Anti-Androgen Therapy","volume":"38","author":"Orme","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2020.06.005","article-title":"Tumor Microenvironment-Derived NRG1 Promotes Antiandrogen Resistance in Prostate Cancer","volume":"38","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4830","DOI":"10.62347\/OTTR3398","article-title":"NRG1 secreted by cancer-associated fibroblasts contributes to enzalutamide resistance in prostate cancer cells","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-021-00546-5","article-title":"Clinical and therapeutic relevance of cancer-associated fibroblasts","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lan, X., Li, W., Zhao, K., Wang, J., Li, S., and Zhao, H. (2025). Revisiting the role of cancer-associated fibroblasts in tumor microenvironment. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1582532"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06744-4","article-title":"Paracrine signaling in cancer-associated fibroblasts: Central regulators of the tumor immune microenvironment","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-023-01860-5","article-title":"Define cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in the tumor microenvironment: New opportunities in cancer immunotherapy and advances in clinical trials","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owen, J.S., Clayton, A., and Pearson, H.B. (2022). Cancer-Associated Fibroblast Heterogeneity, Activation and Function: Implications for Prostate Cancer. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13010067"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6619","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-34395-2","article-title":"Pan-cancer single-cell analysis reveals the heterogeneity and plasticity of cancer-associated fibroblasts in the tumor microenvironment","volume":"13","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-024-03305-5","article-title":"Comprehensive analyses of the cancer-associated fibroblast subtypes and their score system for prediction of outcomes and immunosuppressive microenvironment in prostate cancer","volume":"24","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-023-06110-6","article-title":"Stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment: Accomplices of tumor progression?","volume":"14","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, J., Chen, X., Chen, Y., Tao, N., and Qin, Z. (2022). Ligustilide Inhibits Tumor Angiogenesis by Downregulating VEGFA Secretion from Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Prostate Cancer via TLR4. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14102406"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3163","DOI":"10.7150\/jca.116402","article-title":"Comprehensive Mendelian randomization and colocalization analysis of plasma proteomics to identify new therapeutic targets for bladder cancer","volume":"16","author":"Zuo","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2022.07.006","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblasts: Vital suppressors of the immune response in the tumor microenvironment","volume":"67","author":"Xiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, W. (2025). Role of TGF\u03b2-activated cancer-associated fibroblasts in the resistance to checkpoint blockade immunotherapy. Front. Oncol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2025.1602452"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Nieves, J.A., Patalano, S.C., Almanza, D., Gharaee-Kermani, M., and Macoska, J.A. (2016). CXCL12\/CXCR4 Axis Activation Mediates Prostate Myofibroblast Phenoconversion through Non-Canonical EGFR\/MEK\/ERK Signaling. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0159490"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-019-1461-z","article-title":"Acetyl-L-Carnitine downregulates invasion (CXCR4\/CXCL12, MMP-9) and angiogenesis (VEGF, CXCL8) pathways in prostate cancer cells: Rationale for prevention and interception strategies","volume":"38","author":"Baci","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12357","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.9b04857","article-title":"Reshaping Prostate Tumor Microenvironment To Suppress Metastasis via Cancer-Associated Fibroblast Inactivation with Peptide-Assembly-Based Nanosystem","volume":"13","author":"Lang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.158308","article-title":"Reshape tumor microenvironment by modulating CXCR4 with FAP-targeted diselenide-organosilica delivery system for prostate cancer immunotherapy","volume":"503","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2023.175586","article-title":"The role of VEGF in cancer-induced angiogenesis and research progress of drugs targeting VEGF","volume":"949","author":"Ghalehbandi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-025-07361-1","article-title":"p53-loss induced prostatic epithelial cell plasticity and invasion is driven by a crosstalk with the tumor microenvironment","volume":"16","author":"Yanushko","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70047","DOI":"10.1002\/jbt.70047","article-title":"The Pro-Migratory and Pro-Invasive Roles of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Secreted IL-17A in Prostate Cancer","volume":"39","author":"Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S500591","article-title":"Drug Delivery System Targeting Cancer-Associated Fibroblast for Improving Immunotherapy","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2025.02.040","article-title":"Nano-drug delivery strategies affecting cancer-associated fibroblasts to reduce tumor metastasis","volume":"15","author":"Zou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00048.2019","article-title":"Diversity and Biology of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts","volume":"101","author":"Biffi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Zhu, T., Miao, H., and Liang, B. (2021). The Calcium Binding Protein S100A11 and Its Roles in Diseases. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.693262"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2023.111323","article-title":"Downregulation of S100A11 promotes T cell infiltration by regulating cancer-associated fibroblasts in prostate cancer","volume":"128","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, L., Wang, D., Han, Y., Huang, T., He, X., Wang, J., and Ou, C. (2022). Emerging Role of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts-Derived Exosomes in Tumorigenesis. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.795372"},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"891","article-title":"Cancer-associated fibroblast-secreted exosomes promote prostate cancer cell migration and invasion by the FGL1\/SOX5 axis","volume":"40","author":"Kong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Histol. Histopathol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2104","DOI":"10.1038\/s41388-024-03057-6","article-title":"Cancer associated fibroblast secreted miR-432-5p targets CHAC1 to inhibit ferroptosis and promote acquired chemoresistance in prostate cancer","volume":"43","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-023-01430-0","article-title":"Ferroptosis landscape in prostate cancer from molecular and metabolic perspective","volume":"9","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-020-01761-1","article-title":"Loss of exosomal miR-146a-5p from cancer-associated fibroblasts after androgen deprivation therapy contributes to prostate cancer metastasis","volume":"39","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2024.102193","article-title":"Selective targeting of chemically modified miR-34a to prostate cancer using a small molecule ligand and an endosomal escape agent","volume":"35","author":"Abdelaal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Ther.-Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2014.04.005","article-title":"Depletion of carcinoma-associated fibroblasts and fibrosis induces immunosuppression and accelerates pancreas cancer with reduced survival","volume":"25","author":"Carstens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s40164-025-00647-2","article-title":"Extracellular matrix stiffness: Mechanisms in tumor progression and therapeutic potential in cancer","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exp. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2023.03.016","article-title":"Fibroblasts in cancer: Unity in heterogeneity","volume":"186","author":"Chhabra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1186\/s40364-020-00245-w","article-title":"Biomarkers for cancer-associated fibroblasts","volume":"8","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomark. Res."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2019.01.007","article-title":"Reflections on depletion of tumor stroma in pancreatic cancer","volume":"1871","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochim. et Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/s41568-022-00527-5","article-title":"Intravital imaging to study cancer progression and metastasis","volume":"23","author":"Entenberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2023.122253","article-title":"Synchronous targeted delivery of TGF-\u03b2 siRNA to stromal and tumor cells elicits robust antitumor immunity against triple-negative breast cancer by comprehensively remodeling the tumor microenvironment","volume":"301","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, S., Zhou, F., and Wu, X. (2025). Lactate-Mediated Crosstalk Between Tumor Cells and Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26125583"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Chen, Z., Qin, Y., Tan, L., and Xu, S. (2025). Nano-strategies targeting cancer-associated fibroblasts to enhance immunotherapy and reverse resistance. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1668199"}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/18\/1\/151\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T10:12:45Z","timestamp":1767607965000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/18\/1\/151"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]},"references-count":167,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers18010151"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers18010151","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]}}}