{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T19:57:57Z","timestamp":1792267077771,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Local delivery after resection of high-grade glioma, particularly glioblastoma (GBM), aims to increase intratumoral drug exposure while limiting systemic toxicity. The only U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved implantable intracranial chemotherapy is the carmustine (1,3-bis[2-chloroethyl]-1-nitrosourea; BCNU)-impregnated polyanhydride wafer (Gliadel wafer), indicated for newly diagnosed high-grade glioma and recurrent GBM. More than two decades of clinical use and randomized data show that intracavitary chemotherapy is feasible and confers a modest survival benefit in carefully selected patients. Nevertheless, Gliadel wafer has not altered the overall poor prognosis of GBM because of biological resistance to nitrosoureas, constrained brain-parenchymal pharmacokinetics, and device-related adverse effects. Objective: The aim is to synthesize clinical and preclinical evidence defining the current limitations of Gliadel wafer and to outline strategies for next-generation local delivery systems, with emphasis on GBM within the broader high-grade glioma setting. Methods: A narrative review of randomized and observational clinical studies, pharmacokinetic studies, and preclinical investigations evaluating Gliadel wafer and potential next-generation local delivery systems in GBM and other high-grade gliomas was performed. Results: The literature delineates key limitations of Gliadel wafer: short diffusion distances and burst-weighted carmustine release, high tumor cell resistance to carmustine due to heterogeneity, and device-related side effects. Emerging approaches to address these limitations include (i) multidrug systems with synergistic effects against GBM cells; (ii) advanced biomaterials that enable controlled and sustained release; and (iii) targeted agents with minimal off-target effects. Testing newer generations of local drug-delivery systems in more predictive translational models, such as patient-derived organoids and spontaneous large-animal glioma models, is essential to maximize the translatability of preclinical studies to human studies. However, broader adoption of spontaneous large-animal glioma models is constrained by ethical oversight, animal-welfare considerations, cost, and limited availability compared with rodent platforms. Conclusions: Next-generation local drug-delivery systems should include multiple synergistic tumor-selective drugs that can be released in a controlled, sustained manner deep into the residual tumor. Preclinical testing of these systems should be conducted in clinically relevant animal models that are more translatable than those used in early Gliadel wafer studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers18060907","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T11:44:52Z","timestamp":1773229492000},"page":"907","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Limitations of Gliadel Wafers and Strategies for Next-Generation Local Delivery Systems for Glioblastoma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4095-0798","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmet","family":"Kartal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Weill Cornell Medicine, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10065, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Min J.","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvey W. Cushing Neuro-Oncology Laboratories, Department of Neurological Surgery, Mass General Brigham and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hani","family":"Chanbour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1345-6918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yohannes","family":"Tsehay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7595-818X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Safwan","family":"Alomari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Cleveland Clinic Florida, Weston, FL 33326, USA"},{"name":"Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab106","article-title":"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: A summary","volume":"23","author":"Louis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa043330","article-title":"Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide for glioblastoma","volume":"352","author":"Stupp","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. 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