{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T12:00:08Z","timestamp":1788350408950,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773360000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre based at Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and UCL Institute of Ophthalmology"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Invasive conjunctival squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC) is an aggressive, ocular surface malignancy. The mean annual age-standardised incidence rate of 0.45 cases per million per year is increasing with an average annual percent rise of 4.5% and occurs mainly in over 65-year-olds in temperate climates but in a younger demographic in the tropics. Invasive CSCC can lead to vision loss either from the destructive effects of the tumour or side effects of therapy, facial disfigurement from radical surgery, and death from metastases. There is no standardised treatment and not all cases are referred to a specialist ocular oncology centre. Recent progress in cancer immunology and genetics has revolutionised the treatment of cutaneous and head and neck SCCs, which share some similarities to invasive CSCC. A better understanding of invasive CSCC and its preinvasive intraepithelial lesions is required to lead to the development of novel targeted and immunotherapies both for local tumour control, globe sparing alternatives and to prevent disseminated disease. This review aims to provide a comprehensive clinical overview of the current knowledge regarding CSSC, its epidemiology, pathogenesis, presentation, diagnosis, management, recent advances in targeted and immunotherapies for personalised treatment of this disease, and early diagnosis strategies to improve patient outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers18060940","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T09:26:38Z","timestamp":1773393998000},"page":"940","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Conjunctival Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Clinical Review of Diagnostic Features, Genetics, Current Management and an Update on Targeted and Immunotherapies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Murad","family":"Mir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Life Course and Medical Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hardeep Singh","family":"Mudhar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Specialist Ophthalmic Pathology Service Sheffield, Department of Histopathology, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield S10 2JF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1530-3824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mandeep S.","family":"Sagoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Ophthalmology at Moorfields Eye Hospital, University College London Institute of Ophthalmology, London EC1V 2PD, UK"},{"name":"Royal London Hospital, London E1 1FR, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7062-4869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen","family":"Gichuhi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00100, Kenya"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious & Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, University of London, London WC1E 7HT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5067-3682","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yamini","family":"Krishna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Life Course and Medical Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK"},{"name":"National Specialist Ophthalmic Pathology Service Liverpool, Liverpool Clinical Laboratories, Royal Liverpool University Hospital, Liverpool L7 8YE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1097\/00004397-199703740-00007","article-title":"Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Conjunctiva","volume":"37","author":"Yang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. 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