{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T06:50:08Z","timestamp":1782197408140,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":190,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Liaoning Provincial Science and Technology Plan","award":["2024-MS-036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024-MS-036"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Prostate cancer remains a major therapeutic challenge, particularly after progression to castration-resistant disease, where persistent androgen receptor signaling, metabolic adaptation, immune escape, and treatment resistance jointly limit clinical benefit. Regulated cell death (RCD) is increasingly recognized not only as an endpoint of tumor cell elimination but also as a dynamic regulator of prostate cancer progression, therapeutic vulnerability, and tumor\u2013immune interactions. In this review, we propose an immunometabolic framework in which androgen receptor signaling, lipid and redox metabolic reprogramming, oxidative stress, and therapeutic pressure converge to shape the susceptibility of prostate cancer cells to distinct RCD modalities. We focus on autophagy and ferroptosis as two extensively studied and translationally relevant pathways, while also discussing emerging roles of necroptosis, pyroptosis, and cuproptosis. Particular attention is given to how RCD-associated signals, including damage-associated molecular patterns, inflammatory mediators, and lipid peroxidation products, may remodel the tumor immune microenvironment and influence the transition between immune-cold and immune-inflamed phenotypes. We further summarize RCD-targeted therapeutic strategies, including ferroptosis induction, autophagy inhibition, nanodrug delivery systems, rational combination therapy, and biomarker-guided patient stratification. Finally, we discuss key translational barriers, including context-dependent biological effects, limited clinical validation, tumor heterogeneity, adaptive resistance, and insufficient predictive biomarkers. By integrating cell death biology with metabolic reprogramming, immune remodeling, and therapeutic resistance, this review highlights RCD as a promising but context-dependent therapeutic vulnerability in advanced prostate cancer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers18122014","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T06:13:37Z","timestamp":1782195217000},"page":"2014","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Regulated Cell Death in Prostate Cancer: Immunometabolic Crosstalk, Therapeutic Resistance, and Biomarker-Guided Combination Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3679-5414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunlin","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110032, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ning","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110032, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"229","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Posdzich, P., Darr, C., Hilser, T., Wahl, M., Herrmann, K., Hadaschik, B., and Gr\u00fcnwald, V. (2023). Metastatic Prostate Cancer-A Review of Current Treatment Options and Promising New Approaches. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15020461"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.5534\/wjmh.180040","article-title":"Role of Androgen Receptor in Prostate Cancer: A Review","volume":"37","author":"Fujita","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Mens Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a030452","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a030452","article-title":"Androgen Signaling in Prostate Cancer","volume":"7","author":"Dai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crona, D.J., and Whang, Y.E. (2017). Androgen Receptor-Dependent and -Independent Mechanisms Involved in Prostate Cancer Therapy Resistance. Cancers, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers9060067"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5501","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2013.206","article-title":"Prostate cancer progression after androgen deprivation therapy: Mechanisms of castrate resistance and novel therapeutic approaches","volume":"32","author":"Karantanos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R146","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-17-0118","article-title":"Clinical relevance of androgen receptor alterations in prostate cancer","volume":"6","author":"Jernberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocr. Connect."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/pcan.2016.17","article-title":"Androgen receptor variant-driven prostate cancer: Clinical implications and therapeutic targeting","volume":"19","author":"Antonarakis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2011.04.008","article-title":"Reciprocal feedback regulation of PI3K and androgen receptor signaling in PTEN-deficient prostate cancer","volume":"19","author":"Carver","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1038\/s41416-021-01435-5","article-title":"Metabolic reprogramming in prostate cancer","volume":"125","author":"Ahmad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.4103\/aja202363","article-title":"Lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and prostate cancer: A crucial metabolic journey","volume":"26","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian J. Androl."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1038\/s41585-024-00869-9","article-title":"Unlocking ferroptosis in prostate cancer\u2014The road to novel therapies and imaging markers","volume":"21","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-023-01430-0","article-title":"Ferroptosis landscape in prostate cancer from molecular and metabolic perspective","volume":"9","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1038\/s41418-017-0012-4","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of cell death: Recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death 2018","volume":"25","author":"Galluzzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-00630-3","article-title":"Necroptosis, pyroptosis and apoptosis: An intricate game of cell death","volume":"18","author":"Bertheloot","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1042\/BCJ20210854","article-title":"The concept of intrinsic versus extrinsic apoptosis","volume":"479","author":"Lossi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-025-02272-2","article-title":"Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) at the crossroad of cell survival and cell death: Implications for cancer and mitochondrial diseases","volume":"23","author":"Nguyen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.21037\/cdt-23-123","article-title":"Apoptosis-inducing factor: A mitochondrial protein associated with metabolic diseases-a narrative review","volume":"13","author":"Zong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diagn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, M., Liu, D., Liu, G., Zhang, M., and Pan, F. (2023). Caspase-Linked Programmed Cell Death in Prostate Cancer: From Apoptosis, Necroptosis, and Pyroptosis to PANoptosis. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202310.1165.v1"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westaby, D., Jimenez-Vacas, J.M., Padilha, A., Varkaris, A., Balk, S.P., de Bono, J.S., and Sharp, A. (2021). Targeting the Intrinsic Apoptosis Pathway: A Window of Opportunity for Prostate Cancer. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14010051"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2024.107162","article-title":"The interplay between autophagy and ferroptosis presents a novel conceptual therapeutic framework for neuroendocrine prostate cancer","volume":"203","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e36605","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000036605","article-title":"A review focusing on the role of pyroptosis in prostate cancer","volume":"102","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3892\/ijo.2025.5783","article-title":"Cuproptosis in prostate cancer: Molecular mechanisms, prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic frontiers of cuproptosis-related genes (Review)","volume":"67","author":"Long","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chun, Y., and Kim, J. (2018). Autophagy: An Essential Degradation Program for Cellular Homeostasis and Life. Cells, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells7120278"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2013.5371","article-title":"An overview of autophagy: Morphology, mechanism, and regulation","volume":"20","author":"Parzych","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI73941","article-title":"The role for autophagy in cancer","volume":"125","author":"White","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.04.004","article-title":"Autophagy and Tumor Metabolism","volume":"25","author":"Kimmelman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.06159-11","article-title":"Role of AMPK-mTOR-Ulk1\/2 in the regulation of autophagy: Cross talk, shortcuts, and feedbacks","volume":"32","author":"Alers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2014.196","article-title":"Autophagy as a modulator and target in prostate cancer","volume":"11","author":"Farrow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4521","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2014.25","article-title":"Targeting autophagy overcomes Enzalutamide resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells and improves therapeutic response in a xenograft model","volume":"33","author":"Nguyen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s11255-018-1801-5","article-title":"Inhibiting autophagy overcomes docetaxel resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Urol. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2017.12.013","article-title":"Docetaxel-mediated autophagy promotes chemoresistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells by inhibiting STAT3","volume":"416","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29911","DOI":"10.4161\/mco.29911","article-title":"Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine for cancer therapy","volume":"1","author":"Manic","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"323","article-title":"Effect of Autophagy Inhibitor Hydroxychloroquine on Chemosensitivity of Castration-resistant Prostate Cancer","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sichuan Univ. (Med. Sci. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.03.042","article-title":"Ferroptosis: An iron-dependent form of nonapoptotic cell death","volume":"149","author":"Dixon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.09.021","article-title":"Ferroptosis: A Regulated Cell Death Nexus Linking Metabolism, Redox Biology, and Disease","volume":"171","author":"Stockwell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9074206","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9074206","article-title":"Positive and Negative Regulation of Ferroptosis and Its Role in Maintaining Metabolic and Redox Homeostasis","volume":"2021","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2020.1810918","article-title":"Ferroptosis: Machinery and regulation","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3192","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-23-0285","article-title":"Androgen Receptor Variants Confer Castration Resistance in Prostate Cancer by Counteracting Antiandrogen-Induced Ferroptosis","volume":"83","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rochette, L., Dogon, G., Rigal, E., Zeller, M., Cottin, Y., and Vergely, C. (2022). Lipid Peroxidation and Iron Metabolism: Two Corner Stones in the Homeostasis Control of Ferroptosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010449"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-022-00583-w","article-title":"The role of ferroptosis in prostate cancer: A novel therapeutic strategy","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2023.216119","article-title":"Targeting GPX4 in human cancer: Implications of ferroptosis induction for tackling cancer resilience","volume":"559","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F.J., Long, H.Z., Zhou, Z.W., Luo, H.Y., Xu, S.G., and Gao, L.C. (2022). System X(c) (-)\/GSH\/GPX4 axis: An important antioxidant system for the ferroptosis in drug-resistant solid tumor therapy. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.910292"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1705-2","article-title":"The CoQ oxidoreductase FSP1 acts parallel to GPX4 to inhibit ferroptosis","volume":"575","author":"Bersuker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1038\/nchembio.2239","article-title":"ACSL4 dictates ferroptosis sensitivity by shaping cellular lipid composition","volume":"13","author":"Doll","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1620","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-023-01077-y","article-title":"An integrated view of lipid metabolism in ferroptosis revisited via lipidomic analysis","volume":"55","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-024-00933-w","article-title":"Advances in ferroptosis for castration-resistant prostate cancer treatment: Novel drug targets and combination therapy strategies","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2021.7976","article-title":"Ferroptosis inducer erastin downregulates androgen receptor and its splice variants in castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"45","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M., Yu, F., Zhang, Y., and Li, P. (2023). Programmed cell death in tumor immunity: Mechanistic insights and clinical implications. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1309635"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-019-1029-8","article-title":"The role of necroptosis in cancer biology and therapy","volume":"18","author":"Gong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.B1900160","article-title":"Complex roles of necroptosis in cancer","volume":"20","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1007\/s10495-021-01663-3","article-title":"Release mechanisms of major DAMPs","volume":"26","author":"Murao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Apoptosis"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K.J., Wang, K.Y., Zhang, H.Z., Meng, X.Y., Chen, J.F., Wang, P., Jiang, J.H., and Ma, Q. (2020). Up-Regulation of RIP3 Alleviates Prostate Cancer Progression by Activation of RIP3\/MLKL Signaling Pathway and Induction of Necroptosis. Front. Oncol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.01720"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.7754\/Clin.Lab.2019.190439","article-title":"The Trend of ripk1\/ripk3 and mlkl Mediated Necroptosis Pathway in Patients with Different Stages of Prostate Cancer as Promising Progression Biomarkers","volume":"66","author":"Heidaryan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Lab."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"439","article-title":"Ophiopogonin D\u2019 induces RIPK1-dependent necroptosis in androgen-dependent LNCaP prostate cancer cells","volume":"56","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2697","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20210672","article-title":"Molecular and structural aspects of gasdermin family pores and insights into gasdermin-elicited programmed cell death","volume":"49","author":"Zahid","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.ai.2023.03.002","article-title":"Regulation of gasdermins in pyroptosis and cytokine release","volume":"158","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3979","DOI":"10.1111\/cas.15059","article-title":"Pyroptosis, a new bridge to tumor immunity","volume":"112","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, M., Guo, J., Gao, Q.H., Wang, H., Wang, F., Wang, Z.R., Liu, S.J., Deng, Y.J., Zhao, Z.W., and Zhang, Y.Y. (2023). Relationship between pyroptosis-mediated inflammation and the pathogenesis of prostate disease. Front. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1084129"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf0529","article-title":"Copper induces cell death by targeting lipoylated TCA cycle proteins","volume":"375","author":"Tsvetkov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37064","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.9245","article-title":"Copper as a target for prostate cancer therapeutics: Copper-ionophore pharmacology and altering systemic copper distribution","volume":"7","author":"Denoyer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, L., Yang, X., Wang, W., Lin, H., Huang, G., Liu, Z., Pan, J., and Mao, X. (2023). A cuproptosis-related LncRNA signature: Integrated analysis associated with biochemical recurrence and immune landscape in prostate cancer. Front. Genet., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2023.1096783"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2024.14659","article-title":"Construction of a cuproptosis-related lncRNA signature to predict biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer","volume":"28","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2401396","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202401396","article-title":"Enzalutamide Sensitizes Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer to Copper-Mediated Cell Death","volume":"11","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23145","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202300980R","article-title":"Cuproptosis enhances docetaxel chemosensitivity by inhibiting autophagy via the DLAT\/mTOR pathway in prostate cancer","volume":"37","author":"Wen","year":"2023","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2532224","DOI":"10.1080\/15384047.2025.2532224","article-title":"Copper death combination therapy: The innovative frontier and challenges in prostate cancer treatment","volume":"26","author":"He","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02192-0","article-title":"The molecular mechanism and therapeutic landscape of copper and cuproptosis in cancer","volume":"10","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2025.12.002","article-title":"Cuproptosis in cancer: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic intervention","volume":"12","author":"Jiang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9031","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S336757","article-title":"An Immune-Related lncRNA Signature to Predict the Biochemical Recurrence and Immune Landscape in Prostate Cancer","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Gen. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Hong, M., Li, Y., Chen, D., Wu, Y., and Hu, Y. (2022). Programmed Cell Death Tunes Tumor Immunity. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.847345"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gadiyar, V., Lahey, K.C., Calianese, D., Devoe, C., Mehta, D., Bono, K., Desind, S., Davra, V., and Birge, R.B. (2020). Cell Death in the Tumor Microenvironment: Implications for Cancer Immunotherapy. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9102207"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montico, B., Nigro, A., Casolaro, V., and Dal Col, J. (2018). Immunogenic Apoptosis as a Novel Tool for Anticancer Vaccine Development. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19020594"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garg, A.D., Galluzzi, L., Apetoh, L., Baert, T., Birge, R.B., Bravo-San Pedro, J.M., Breckpot, K., Brough, D., Chaurio, R., and Cirone, M. (2015). Molecular and Translational Classifications of DAMPs in Immunogenic Cell Death. Front. Immunol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00588"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1387\/ijdb.150061pa","article-title":"Immunogenic cell death","volume":"59","author":"Garg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1159\/000541881","article-title":"The Immune Microenvironment in Prostate Cancer: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"103","author":"Novysedlak","year":"2025","journal-title":"Oncology"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"T95","DOI":"10.1530\/ERC-21-0149","article-title":"The tumor microenvironment and immune responses in prostate cancer patients","volume":"28","author":"Kwon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr.-Relat. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6913","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.100555","article-title":"Immunological facets of prostate cancer and the potential of immune checkpoint inhibition in disease management","volume":"14","author":"Hansen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2021.09.005","article-title":"Human prostate cancer bone metastases have an actionable immunosuppressive microenvironment","volume":"39","author":"Kfoury","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"210","article-title":"Prostate cancer immunotherapy: A review of recent advancements with novel treatment methods and efficacy","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Exp. Urol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koinis, F., Xagara, A., Chantzara, E., Leontopoulou, V., Aidarinis, C., and Kotsakis, A. (2021). Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Prostate Cancer: Present Knowledge and Future Perspectives. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11010020"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"e89","article-title":"Immune Checkpoint Blockade for Prostate Cancer: Niche Role or Next Breakthrough?","volume":"40","author":"Fong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. Educ. Book"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-021-00340-5","article-title":"How to turn up the heat on the cold immune microenvironment of metastatic prostate cancer","volume":"24","author":"Stultz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2201406","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202201406","article-title":"Interrelation between Programmed Cell Death and Immunogenic Cell Death: Take Antitumor Nanodrug as an Example","volume":"7","author":"Meng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small Methods"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, Z., Sun, J.B., Lin, F., Huang, X.Y., Huang, Q., Chen, D.N., Zheng, Q.S., Xue, X.Y., Xu, N., and Wei, Y. (2023). Subtype and prognostic analysis of immunogenic cell death-related gene signature in prostate cancer. Front. Oncol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2023.1160972"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc3380","article-title":"Immunogenic cell death and DAMPs in cancer therapy","volume":"12","author":"Krysko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-03221-2","article-title":"Detection of immunogenic cell death and its relevance for cancer therapy","volume":"11","author":"Fucikova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1038\/cdd.2013.75","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of ATP secretion during immunogenic cell death","volume":"21","author":"Martins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"47","article-title":"Immunogenic Cell Death: A Step Ahead of Autophagy in Cancer Therapy","volume":"3","author":"Gupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cancer Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, W.A., and Joung, J.Y. (2025). Immunotherapy in Prostate Cancer: From a \u201cCold\u201d Tumor to a \u201cHot\u201d Prospect. Cancers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17071064"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2024.217155","article-title":"Advances in and prospects of immunotherapy for prostate cancer","volume":"601","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.56434\/j.arch.esp.urol.20247704.44","article-title":"The Impact of High Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU) on Tumor-Specific Immune Responses of Prostate Cancer","volume":"77","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Esp. Urol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003430","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2021-003430","article-title":"Immunogenic ferroptosis and where to find it?","volume":"9","author":"Demuynck","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Z., Zou, S., and Wen, K. (2023). The crosstalk of CD8+ T cells and ferroptosis in cancer. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1255443"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s10565-025-10025-7","article-title":"Lipotoxicity, lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis: A dilemma in cancer therapy","volume":"41","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s12672-023-00620-7","article-title":"Pyroptosis in urinary malignancies: A literature review","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Discov. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2021.09.003","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms and functions of pyroptosis in inflammation and antitumor immunity","volume":"81","author":"Hou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, S., Huang, Q., and Cheng, J. (2023). The unfolding story of dying tumor cells during cancer treatment. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1073561"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.13301","article-title":"Decoding immunogenic cell death from a dendritic cell perspective","volume":"321","author":"Janssens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101848","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2023.101848","article-title":"Antigen cross-presentation by dendritic cells: A critical axis in cancer immunotherapy","volume":"71","author":"Moussion","year":"2024","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-025-02415-x","article-title":"Ferroptosis: CD8(+)T cells\u2019 blade to destroy tumor cells or poison for self-destruction","volume":"11","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, A., Zhang, Y., Xu, J., Yin, T., and Lu, X.J. (2019). T Cell Dysfunction in Cancer Immunity and Immunotherapy. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01719"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-025-02506-4","article-title":"Pyroptosis in cancer therapy: A double-edged sword for immune activation and tumor progression","volume":"24","author":"Alishvandi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boutilier, A.J., and Elsawa, S.F. (2021). Macrophage Polarization States in the Tumor Microenvironment. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22136995"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-024-02317-5","article-title":"Ferroptosis is an effective strategy for cancer therapy","volume":"41","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2025.25.e6","article-title":"Regulation of Ferroptosis in Cancer and Immune Cells","volume":"25","author":"Jang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Immune Netw."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc.2017.53","article-title":"Targeting autophagy in cancer","volume":"17","author":"Levy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Souza, A.S.C., Gon\u00e7alves, L.B., Lepique, A.P., and de Araujo-Souza, P.S. (2020). The Role of Autophagy in Tumor Immunology-Complex Mechanisms That May Be Explored Therapeutically. Front. Oncol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.603661"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-024-02121-0","article-title":"Nanomedicine-induced programmed cell death in cancer therapy: Mechanisms and perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Luobin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9459","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S466396","article-title":"Synergistic Potential of Nanomedicine in Prostate Cancer Immunotherapy: Breakthroughs and Prospects","volume":"19","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2021.1949287","article-title":"Targeting the spectrum of immune checkpoints in prostate cancer","volume":"14","author":"Sena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70357","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.70357","article-title":"Programmed Cell Death in Cancer","volume":"6","author":"Wei","year":"2025","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2022.103732","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and its role in prostate cancer therapy","volume":"176","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17588359231152839","DOI":"10.1177\/17588359231152839","article-title":"Targeting lipid metabolism in metastatic prostate cancer","volume":"15","author":"Scheinberg","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Zhang, X., Xing, J., Gao, L., and Lu, H. (2024). Nanomedicines in diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancers: An updated review. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1444201"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hagaman, D.E., Damasco, J.A., Perez, J.V.D., Rojo, R.D., and Melancon, M.P. (2021). Recent Advances in Nanomedicine for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Prostate Cancer Bone Metastasis. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26020384"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.slast.2025.100362","article-title":"Nanomedicine for prostate cancer: Modern therapies based on green synthesis of nanoparticles","volume":"35","author":"Aatif","year":"2025","journal-title":"SLAS Technol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104904","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2024.104904","article-title":"Advancements in nanomedicine: Precision delivery strategies for male pelvic malignancies\u2014Spotlight on prostate and colorectal cancer","volume":"137","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharma.2014.04.006","article-title":"Nanomedicine and its applications to the treatment of prostate cancer","volume":"72","author":"Barratt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Pharm. Fr."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, Y., Zhou, Y., Liu, L., Xu, Y., Chen, Q., Wang, Y., Wu, S., Deng, Y., Zhang, J., and Shao, A. (2020). Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy and Its Role in Overcoming Drug Resistance. Front. Mol. Biosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2020.00193"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113714","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2022.113714","article-title":"Current progress of nanomedicine for prostate cancer diagnosis and treatment","volume":"155","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1039\/D3BM01894F","article-title":"Ferroptosis and ferroptosis-inducing nanomedicine as a promising weapon in combination therapy of prostate cancer","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ashrafizadeh, M., Hushmandi, K., Rahmani Moghadam, E., Zarrin, V., Hosseinzadeh Kashani, S., Bokaie, S., Najafi, M., Tavakol, S., Mohammadinejad, R., and Nabavi, N. (2020). Progress in Delivery of siRNA-Based Therapeutics Employing Nano-Vehicles for Treatment of Prostate Cancer. Bioengineering, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering7030091"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4170","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867329666211221112312","article-title":"Nanoparticles Mediated Target-specific Drug Delivery in Prostate Cancer: An In-depth Review","volume":"29","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Liu, T., Li, X., Sheng, H., Ma, X., and Hao, L. (2021). Ferroptosis-Inducing Nanomedicine for Cancer Therapy. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.735965"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-022-02293-6","article-title":"Targeting autophagy in prostate cancer: Preclinical and clinical evidence for therapeutic response","volume":"41","author":"Ashrafizadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1039\/D3NA00877K","article-title":"Liposome-coated nanoparticle triggers prostate cancer ferroptosis through synergetic chemodynamic-gas therapy","volume":"6","author":"Hong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-024-03235-0","article-title":"Ferroptosis and the tumor microenvironment","volume":"43","author":"Cui","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2022.07.055","article-title":"A reactive oxygen species-replenishing coordination polymer nanomedicine disrupts redox homeostasis and induces concurrent apoptosis-ferroptosis for combinational cancer therapy","volume":"151","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1909","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2017.1410256","article-title":"Co-delivery nanoparticles of anti-cancer drugs for improving chemotherapy efficacy","volume":"24","author":"Qi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2016.1205583","article-title":"Nanoparticle-mediated co-delivery of chemotherapeutic agent and siRNA for combination cancer therapy","volume":"14","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2023.09.018","article-title":"Nanomedicine-induced programmed cell death enhances tumor immunotherapy","volume":"62","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2401631","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202401631","article-title":"Cancer Nanovaccines: Nanomaterials and Clinical Perspectives","volume":"20","author":"Desai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omabe, K., Paris, C., Lannes, F., Ta\u00efeb, D., and Rocchi, P. (2021). Nanovectorization of Prostate Cancer Treatment Strategies: A New Approach to Improved Outcomes. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13050591"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.102585","article-title":"Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems in urologic oncology: From targeted therapy to precision theranostics","volume":"35","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1038\/s41698-024-00773-w","article-title":"Intratumoral heterogeneity drives acquired therapy resistance in a patient with metastatic prostate cancer","volume":"8","author":"Rhinehart","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Precis. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"143","article-title":"Metabolic reprogramming as an emerging mechanism of resistance to endocrine therapies in prostate cancer","volume":"4","author":"Chetta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23725","article-title":"Combined N-terminal androgen receptor and autophagy inhibition increases the antitumor effect in enzalutamide sensitive and enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer cells","volume":"79","author":"Salemi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-20-3477","article-title":"Ferroptosis Inducers Are a Novel Therapeutic Approach for Advanced Prostate Cancer","volume":"81","author":"Ghoochani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-018-2385-5","article-title":"Inhibition of autophagy significantly increases the antitumor effect of Abiraterone in prostate cancer","volume":"37","author":"Mortezavi","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salemi, S., Kranzb\u00fchler, B., Baumgartner, V., Breitenmoser, L., Kuzmanov, A., Lehner, F., and Eberli, D. (2024). Simultaneous Autophagy and Androgen Receptor Inhibition in a Prostate Cancer Xenograft Model. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16193261"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-018-0866-5","article-title":"Dual role of autophagy on docetaxel-sensitivity in prostate cancer cells","volume":"9","author":"Cristofani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-021-01566-y","article-title":"Suppressed PLIN3 frequently occurs in prostate cancer, promoting docetaxel resistance via intensified autophagy, an event reversed by chloroquine","volume":"38","author":"Lamprou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, M., Cao, Y., Chi, C., Zhao, J., Chong, E., Chin, K.X.C., Tan, N.Z.V., Dmitry, K., Yang, G., and Yang, X. (2023). Unleashing novel horizons in advanced prostate cancer treatment: Investigating the potential of prostate specific membrane antigen-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1265751"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.14712\/fb2022068020059","article-title":"Docosahexaenoic Acid Reverses Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Drug Resistance by Impairing the PI3K\/AKT\/Nrf2\/GPX4 Signalling Pathway in Docetaxel-Resistant PC3 Prostate Cancer Cells","volume":"68","author":"Shao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Folia Biol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, M., Yang, M., Zhang, J., Yin, Y., Fan, X., Zhang, Y., Qin, S., Zhang, H., and Yu, F. (2021). Immunogenic Cell Death Induction by Ionizing Radiation. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.705361"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4005","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000001070","article-title":"Contemporaneous and upcoming trends in immunotherapy for prostate cancer: Review","volume":"85","author":"Saleem","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13644","DOI":"10.1111\/cpr.13644","article-title":"Targeting novel regulated cell death: Ferroptosis, pyroptosis and necroptosis in anti-PD-1\/PD-L1 cancer immunotherapy","volume":"57","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Prolif."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16204","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.4c15765","article-title":"Cancer Nanovaccines: Mechanisms, Design Principles, and Clinical Translation","volume":"19","author":"Zaccariotto","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Udayakumar, S., Pandiarajan, S., Jessy Mercy, D., Suresh, J., Jagadeesh kumar, J.R., Girigoswami, A., and Girigoswami, K. (2025). Revolutionizing Cancer Vaccine: The Power of Advanced Nanotechnology. Chemistry, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemistry7030097"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e006781","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2023-006781","article-title":"Pyroptosis activates conventional type I dendritic cells to mediate the priming of highly functional anticancer T cells","volume":"12","author":"Inkol","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1097\/PPO.0000000000000246","article-title":"New Combination Strategies Using Programmed Cell Death 1\/Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 Checkpoint Inhibitors as a Backbone","volume":"23","author":"Ribas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer J."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1097\/CCO.0000000000000187","article-title":"Sequences and combinations of multifaceted therapy in advanced prostate cancer","volume":"27","author":"Vaishampayan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rai, V. (2025). Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy for Prostate Cancer: Present and Future Prospectives. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15060751"},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"95","article-title":"Omics sciences and precision medicine in prostate cancer","volume":"174","author":"Medori","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Ter."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kdadra, M., H\u00f6ckner, S., Leung, H., Kremer, W., and Schiffer, E. (2019). Metabolomics Biomarkers of Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review. Diagnostics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics9010021"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hachem, S., Yehya, A., El Masri, J., Mavingire, N., Johnson, J.R., Dwead, A.M., Kattour, N., Bouchi, Y., Kobeissy, F., and Rais-Bahrami, S. (2024). Contemporary Update on Clinical and Experimental Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: A Multi-Omics-Focused Approach to Detection and Risk Stratification. Biology, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology13100762"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2025.13495","article-title":"Role of multi-omics in advancing the understanding and treatment of prostate cancer (Review)","volume":"31","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-022-00537-2","article-title":"The promising role of new molecular biomarkers in prostate cancer: From coding and non-coding genes to artificial intelligence approaches","volume":"25","author":"Scavuzzo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1007\/s11864-023-01121-z","article-title":"Genomic and Phenotypic Biomarkers for Precision Medicine Guidance in Advanced Prostate Cancer","volume":"24","author":"Davoudi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Oncol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S86","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.24354","article-title":"Future directions for precision oncology in prostate cancer","volume":"82","author":"Mizuno","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1186\/s40644-025-00938-1","article-title":"Precision medicine in prostate cancer: Individualized treatment through radiomics, genomics, and biomarkers","volume":"25","author":"Min","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Imaging"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watanabe, R., Miura, N., Kikugawa, T., and Saika, T. (2025). Precision Medicine in Prostate Cancer with a Focus on Emerging Therapeutic Strategies. Biomedicines, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines14010052"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majewska, Z., Zajkowska, M., P\u0105czek, S., Nowi\u0144ski, A.R., Sok\u00f3lska, W., Gryko, M., and Orywal, K. (2025). The Clinical Relevance of Tumor Biomarkers in Prostate Cancer-A Review. Cancers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17233742"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2024.113216","article-title":"Analysis and functional validations of multiple cell death patterns for prognosis in prostate cancer","volume":"143","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-024-03462-7","article-title":"Prognostic and immunological implications of heterogeneous cell death patterns in prostate cancer","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e37554","article-title":"Machine learning-based cell death marker for predicting prognosis and identifying tumor immune microenvironment in prostate cancer","volume":"10","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2313","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-23-1489","article-title":"ACSM1 and ACSM3 Regulate Fatty Acid Metabolism to Support Prostate Cancer Growth and Constrain Ferroptosis","volume":"84","author":"Shrestha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06180-4","article-title":"Targeting ferroptosis in prostate cancer management: Molecular mechanisms, multidisciplinary strategies and translational perspectives","volume":"23","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"1824","article-title":"Oncogenic ACSM1 in prostate cancer is through metabolic and extracellular matrix-receptor interaction signaling pathways","volume":"12","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s13755-023-00264-5","article-title":"From molecular mechanisms of prostate cancer to translational applications: Based on multi-omics fusion analysis and intelligent medicine","volume":"12","author":"Ren","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Inf. Sci. Syst."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1038\/nrclinonc.2013.30","article-title":"Validation and clinical utility of prostate cancer biomarkers","volume":"10","author":"Scher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1007\/s10555-013-9470-4","article-title":"Validation of proposed prostate cancer biomarkers with gene expression data: A long road to travel","volume":"33","author":"Amaro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Metastasis Rev."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2852","DOI":"10.1007\/s12094-024-03784-y","article-title":"Targeting mitochondria and programmed cell death as potential interventions for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"27","author":"Amantakul","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2021.11.001","article-title":"Understanding and targeting prostate cancer cell heterogeneity and plasticity","volume":"82","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/s41698-022-00272-w","article-title":"Tumor microenvironment heterogeneity an important mediator of prostate cancer progression and therapeutic resistance","volume":"6","author":"Ge","year":"2022","journal-title":"npj Precis. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2024.189080","article-title":"Prostate cancer: Molecular aspects, consequences, and opportunities of the multifocal nature","volume":"1879","author":"Skotheim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2279235","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2023.2279235","article-title":"Molecular classifications of prostate cancer: Basis for individualized risk stratification and precision therapy","volume":"55","author":"Ge","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-024-05983-0","article-title":"Unraveling molecular characteristics and tumor microenvironment dynamics of neuroendocrine prostate cancer","volume":"150","author":"Artamonova","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semnuclmed.2025.11.025","article-title":"Therapy strategies to defeat prostate cancer heterogeneity","volume":"56","author":"Jadvar","year":"2026","journal-title":"Semin. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali, Z.B., Plikomol, M., Bejrananda, T., Thongsuksai, P., Khirilak, P., Khongcharoen, N., Ulhaka, K., Nontikarn, R., Phanthuvet, O., and Khongkow, P. (2025). A Patient-Derived Organoid Platform from TUR-P Samples Enables Precision Drug Screening in Advanced Prostate Cancer. Cancers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17243973"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-024-00920-9","article-title":"Targeting immunogenic cell stress and death for cancer therapy","volume":"23","author":"Galluzzi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., Ojo, A., Tsao, S., Horowitz, A., Kyprianou, N., and Tsao, C.K. (2025). Overcoming Immune Evasion in the Prostate Tumor Microenvironment: Novel Targeted Strategies to Improve Treatment Outcomes. Cancers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17213441"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2426755","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2024.2426755","article-title":"Biomarkers in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer for efficiency of immune checkpoint inhibitors","volume":"57","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/14737159.2019.1675515","article-title":"Clinical utility of emerging biomarkers in prostate cancer liquid biopsies","volume":"20","author":"Boerrigter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a030536","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a030536","article-title":"Preclinical Models of Prostate Cancer: Patient-Derived Xenografts, Organoids, and Other Explant Models","volume":"8","author":"Risbridger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peyrottes, A., de Brek, N., Vieira Aleixo, A.S., Baboudjian, M., Anract, J., Roupret, M., Timsit, M.O., M\u00e9jean, A., Guidotti, J.E., and Goffin, V. (2026). Unveiling the Clinical Potential of Prostate Cancer Three-dimensional Models: A Systematic Review. Eur. Urol. Oncol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euo.2026.03.007"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2514","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-25-0269","article-title":"Combining Spatial Transcriptomics, Pseudotime, and Machine Learning Enables Discovery of Biomarkers for Prostate Cancer","volume":"85","author":"Smelik","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1158\/1541-7786.MCR-24-0791","article-title":"Single-Cell and Spatial Transcriptomics Reveal a Tumor-Associated Macrophage Subpopulation that Mediates Prostate Cancer Progression and Metastasis","volume":"23","author":"Mei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_189","first-page":"21","article-title":"The implications of single-cell RNA-seq analysis in prostate cancer: Unraveling tumor heterogeneity, therapeutic implications and pathways towards personalized therapy","volume":"11","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mil. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2025.06.013","article-title":"Novel Therapeutic Strategies for Metastatic Prostate Cancer Care","volume":"88","author":"Cimadamore","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/18\/12\/2014\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T06:43:03Z","timestamp":1782196983000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/18\/12\/2014"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]},"references-count":190,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers18122014"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers18122014","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]}}}