{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:36:10Z","timestamp":1787027770780,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,15]],"date-time":"2026-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786752000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science and Technology Research Program of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","award":["KJQN202300101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJQN202300101"]}]},{"award":["KJQN202300101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJQN202300101"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/031nm5713","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation of CQCSTC","award":["Cstc2020jcyj-msxmX0845"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Cstc2020jcyj-msxmX0845"]}]},{"award":["Cstc2020jcyj-msxmX0845"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Cstc2020jcyj-msxmX0845"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/021nxhr62","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NSFC 82503207"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSFC 82503207"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["NSFC 82503207"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSFC 82503207"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2023M740449"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M740449"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["GZC20233353"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GZC20233353"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2023M740449"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M740449"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0426zh255","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["GZC20233353"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GZC20233353"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0426zh255","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Postdoctoral Fellowship Program (Grade C) of China","award":["GZC20233353"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GZC20233353"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has changed the way many solid tumors are treated; yet, only a minority of patients respond durably. The biomarkers that guide therapy (the PD-L1 expression, tumor mutational burden, and microsatellite status) read only fixed molecular features and miss the shifting tumor\u2013immune exchange. Patient-derived tumor organoids reproduce the tumor epithelium and predict the chemotherapy responses, but, in their usual form, they omit the immune compartment on which the ICB acts. This review asks how immune-competent organoids can close that gap, and how well they predict the response. One idea organizes the field: how a model is built determines what it can predict. Two complementary construction routes have been developed. One preserves endogenous immunity through an air\u2013liquid interface culture; the other rebuilds it by a co-culture with defined effector populations. Both now incorporate microenvironmental reconstruction and quantitative functional readouts. The most developed examples are in colorectal cancer, with breast cancer applications only beginning to appear. Evidence for the ICB response prediction, graded on a four-level scale, remains at the proof-of-concept stage. Organoid functional assays complement rather than replace molecular biomarkers. Their clinical translation requires progress on four fronts: standardized protocols, longer immune cell viability, spatial and multi-omic integration, and prospective paired validation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers18162639","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T10:04:36Z","timestamp":1786961076000},"page":"2639","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Immune-Competent Tumor Organoid Models: Construction Strategies and Their Application in Predicting Immune Checkpoint Blockade Response"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Qi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory, Jiangjin Hospital, Chongqing University of Chinese Medicine, Chongqing Jiangjin District Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Chongqing 402247, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Clinical Laboratory Medical Diagnostics (Chinese Ministry of Education), Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hong","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Jiangjin Hospital, Chongqing University of Chinese Medicine, Chongqing Jiangjin District Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Chongqing 402247, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xueying","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Clinical Laboratory Medical Diagnostics (Chinese Ministry of Education), Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1839-0014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lei","family":"Lang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory, Jiangjin Hospital, Chongqing University of Chinese Medicine, Chongqing Jiangjin District Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Chongqing 402247, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Clinical Laboratory Medical Diagnostics (Chinese Ministry of Education), Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing University Central Hospital, School of Medicine, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2509","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1500596","article-title":"PD-1 Blockade in Tumors with Mismatch-Repair Deficiency","volume":"372","author":"Le","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. 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