{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T04:19:48Z","timestamp":1787804388518,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787529600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PI24CIII\/00057, PI19CIII\/00025 and PI16CIII\/00009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI24CIII\/00057, PI19CIII\/00025 and PI16CIII\/00009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PI24CIII\/00057, PI19CIII\/00025 and PI16CIII\/00009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI24CIII\/00057, PI19CIII\/00025 and PI16CIII\/00009"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ca2c886","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Lymphomas are the third most common pediatric malignancy, with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) comprising around 7% of childhood cancers. Environmental exposures have been linked to its etiology. Particulate matter (PM) prenatal exposure is increasingly scrutinized for potential effects on early-life carcinogenesis. We investigated whether exposure during pregnancy to PM2.5 and PM10 was associated with childhood NHL incidence. Methods: A population-based case\u2013control study was conducted in Spain (2009\u20132016), including 3,682,038 children &lt; 15 years. Incident NHL cases (n = 289) were identified through the Spanish Childhood Tumor Registry. Prenatal PM2.5 and PM10 exposures were estimated using a random forest model. Logistic regression estimated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Exposures were modeled continuously and categorically by tertiles (low, medium, or high exposure) to assess nonlinearity; trimester-specific analyses were also explored. Results: In the analysis with the continuous exposure, higher prenatal PM2.5 was associated with increased odds of NHL, and PM10 showed smaller associations. With categorical variables, medium and high-level exposure to PM2.5 showed an association with higher NHL incidence, especially in the third trimester. High-level exposure to PM10 during the first and second trimesters was linked to a higher NHL incidence in children under five years. Conclusions: Maternal PM2.5 and PM10 exposure during pregnancy could be associated with childhood NHL incidence, with stronger associations among children diagnosed before age 5. These findings warrant replication and mechanistic investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers18172746","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T17:20:28Z","timestamp":1787592028000},"page":"2746","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exposure to Particulate Matter (PM) During Pregnancy and Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas in Children"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6367-8853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gema","family":"Monteagudo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UNED-ENS Mixed Research Institute (IMIENS), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lidia P\u00e9rez","family":"Ormita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rey Juan Carlos University Hospital, 28933 M\u00f3stoles, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8624-0333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M\u00f2nica","family":"Guxens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IS-Global, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"ICREA, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Departament MELIS-UPF, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08005 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Centre for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology & Public Health (CIBER Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica-CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry\/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 2060, 3000 CD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5669-5097","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adela","family":"Ca\u00f1ete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spanish Registry of Childhood Tumours (RETI-SEHOP), University of Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Pardo Romaguera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spanish Registry of Childhood Tumours (RETI-SEHOP), University of Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7388-1767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana","family":"G\u00f3mez-Barroso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology & Public Health (CIBER Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica-CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"National Center for Epidemiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Carlos III Institute of Health), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6542-4590","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Alonso-Col\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UNED-ENS Mixed Research Institute (IMIENS), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"National Center for Epidemiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Carlos III Institute of Health), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6551-9215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beatriz","family":"N\u00fa\u00f1ez-Corcuera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Health, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Carlos III Institute of Health), 28220 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan Antonio Ortega","family":"Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Environmental Health Speciality Unit (Pehsu), Hospital University Virgen Arrixaca, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"IMIB-Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Pediatrics Area, Department of Surgery, Pediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Health Sciences Campus, University of Murcia, Avda. Buenavista, 32, El Palmar, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6154-9142","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebeca","family":"Ramis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology & Public Health (CIBER Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica-CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"National Center for Epidemiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Carlos III Institute of Health), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Our World in Data (2026, April 06). IHME, Global Burden of Disease (2025)\u2013With Major Processing by Our World in Data. \u201cCancers\u2013IHME\u201d [Dataset]. IHME, Global Burden of Disease, \u201cGlobal Burden of Disease-Deaths\u201d [Original Data]. Causes of Death in Children Under Five [Internet]. Available online: https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/grapher\/causes-of-death-in-children-under-5."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Our World in Data (2026, April 06). IHME, Global Burden of Disease (2025)\u2013With Major Processing by Our World in Data. \u201cCancers\u2013IHME\u201d [Dataset]. IHME, Global Burden of Disease, \u201cGlobal Burden of Disease-Deaths\u201d [Original Data]. Causes of Death in Children Aged 5 to 14 [Internet]. Available online: https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/grapher\/causes-of-death-in-5-14-year-olds."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Ca\u00f1ete Nieto, A., Pardo Romaguera, E., Alfonso Comos, P., Valero Poveda, S., Porta Cebolla, S., Valderrama Zuri\u00e1n, J.C., and Peris Bonet, R. (2024). C\u00e1ncer Infantil en Espa\u00f1a. Estad\u00edsticas 1980\u20132023, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia. Available online: https:\/\/www.uv.es\/uvweb\/national-registry-childhood-tumors-RETI-SEHOP\/en\/childhood-cancer-numbers\/reti-sehop-reports-1285944920873.html."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2920","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.21787","article-title":"Air pollution and childhood cancer: A review of the epidemiological literature","volume":"118","author":"Reynolds","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2022015850","article-title":"International Consensus Classification of Myeloid Neoplasms and Acute Leukemias: Integrating morphologic, clinical, and genomic data","volume":"140","author":"Arber","year":"2022","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s11899-015-0277-y","article-title":"Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma in Children","volume":"10","author":"Sandlund","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Hematol. Malig. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2026, March 31). International Incidence of Childhood Cancer. Online Comparative Tables. Available online: https:\/\/iicc.iarc.fr\/results\/comparative-tables\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.03.009","article-title":"Childhood cancer in small geographical areas and proximity to air-polluting industries","volume":"156","author":"Sotomayor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.10.005","article-title":"A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter","volume":"74","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.112418","article-title":"Association between long-term exposure to particulate matter and childhood cancer: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"205","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olea, E.S., Sanchez, C.O., Guxens, M., Ca\u00f1ete, A., Romaguera, E.P., G\u00f3mez-Barroso, D., Garc\u00eda-P\u00e9rez, J., Nu\u00f1ez-Corcuera, B., Ortega-Garc\u00eda, J.A., and Ramis, R. (2024). Particulate Matter Exposure during Pregnancy and Childhood Leukemia Incidence. Atmosphere, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos15070751"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1515\/reveh-2024-0171","article-title":"Fine particulate matter exposure and cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies","volume":"40","author":"Feng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3309","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.28083","article-title":"Residence proximity to benzene release sites is associated with increased incidence of non-Hodgkin lymphoma","volume":"119","author":"Bulka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2009.09.011","article-title":"Residential proximity to industrial facilities and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma","volume":"110","author":"Davis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-12-20","article-title":"Residential proximity to industrial combustion facilities and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A case\u2013control study","volume":"12","author":"Pronk","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hvidtfeldt, U.A., Erdmann, F., Urhoj, S.K., Brandt, J., Geels, C., Ketzel, M., Frohn, L.M., Christensen, J.H., S\u00f8rensen, M., and Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2020). Residential Exposure to PM2.5 Components and Risk of Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma in Denmark: A Nationwide Register-Based Case-Control Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17238949"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McKenzie, L.M., Allshouse, W.B., Byers, T.E., Bedrick, E.J., Serdar, B., and Adgate, J.L. (2017). Childhood hematologic cancer and residential proximity to oil and gas development. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0170423"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2025.108973","article-title":"Impact of particulate matter 2.5 on placental ultrastructure including mitochondrial damage through oxidative stress","volume":"136","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"460","article-title":"Outdoor air pollution and cancer: An overview of the current evidence and public health recommendations","volume":"70","author":"Turner","year":"2020","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). Registro Espa\u00f1ol de Tumores Infantiles RETI-SEHOP. Available online: https:\/\/www.uv.es\/uvweb\/registro-espanyol-tumores-infantiles-RETI-SEHOP\/es\/cancer-infantil-cifras\/cancer-infantil-1285944919611.html."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.20910","article-title":"International Classification of Childhood Cancer, third edition","volume":"103","author":"Stiller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2026, April 06). Instituto Nacional de Estad\u00edstica. (National Statistics Institute). INE, Available online: https:\/\/www.ine.es\/dynt3\/inebase\/index.htm?padre=5851&capsel=5853."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.01.016","article-title":"Estimation of daily PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in Italy, 2013\u20132015, using a spatiotemporal land-use random-forest model","volume":"124","author":"Stafoggia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-025-01274-1","article-title":"Particulate matter exposure during pregnancy and birth outcomes: Exposure windows of susceptibility and socioeconomic inequalities","volume":"40","author":"Guxens","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaceta.2019.10.008","article-title":"\u00cdndice de privaci\u00f3n en Espa\u00f1a por secci\u00f3n censal en 2011","volume":"35","author":"Duque","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gac. Sanit."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djae035","article-title":"PM2.5, vegetation density, and childhood cancer: A case-control registry-based study from Texas 1995\u20132011","volume":"116","author":"Williams","year":"2024","journal-title":"JNCI J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109762","article-title":"Long-term exposure to PM2.5 and its constituents and risk of Non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Denmark: A population-based case\u2013control study","volume":"188","author":"Taj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2017.01.004","article-title":"Maternal exposure to ambient air pollution and risk of early childhood cancers: A population-based study in Ontario, Canada","volume":"100","author":"Lavigne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1730","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-25-0465","article-title":"Ambient Fine Particulate Matter, Residential Greenness, and Childhood Cancer Risk by Trimester of Exposure in Minnesota 2000 to 2014: A Case\u2013Control Study","volume":"34","author":"Clark","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3857","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-025-01812-6","article-title":"The possible association between prenatal exposure to air pollution and childhood cancer: A historical cohort study","volume":"18","author":"Farhi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46002","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP4381","article-title":"Association between Outdoor Air Pollution and Childhood Leukemia: A Systematic Review and Dose\u2013Response Meta-Analysis","volume":"127","author":"Filippini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"093001","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aceb7a","article-title":"Exposure to air pollution and risk of haematological malignancies: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiologic evidence","volume":"18","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106135","article-title":"Ambient ultrafine particle concentrations and incidence of childhood cancers","volume":"145","author":"Lavigne","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2012.42","article-title":"Review of research on residential mobility during pregnancy: Consequences for assessment of prenatal environmental exposures","volume":"22","author":"Bell","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2026, April 20). Orden TEC\/351\/2019; de 18 de Marzo, por la Que se Aprueba el \u00cdndice Nacional de Calidad del Aire, Available online: https:\/\/www.boe.es\/eli\/es\/o\/2019\/03\/18\/tec351\/con."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2026, February 15). Directiva 2024\/2881; del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo, de 23 de Octubre de 2024, Available online: https:\/\/www.miteco.gob.es\/es\/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental\/temas\/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire\/normativa-calidad-del-aire\/normativa-europea.html."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines: Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/handle\/10665\/345329."}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/18\/17\/2746\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T04:12:31Z","timestamp":1787803951000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/18\/17\/2746"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers18172746"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers18172746","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]}}}