{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T08:29:40Z","timestamp":1791966580873,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":154,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]],"date-time":"2021-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616716800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dopamine (DA) is a key neurotransmitter involved in multiple physiological functions including motor control, modulation of affective and emotional states, reward mechanisms, reinforcement of behavior, and selected higher cognitive functions. Dysfunction in dopaminergic transmission is recognized as a core alteration in several devastating neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD), schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and addiction. Here we will discuss the current insights on the role of DA in motor control and reward learning mechanisms and its involvement in the modulation of synaptic dynamics through different pathways. In particular, we will consider the role of DA as neuromodulator of two forms of synaptic plasticity, known as long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) in several cortical and subcortical areas. Finally, we will delineate how the effect of DA on dendritic spines places this molecule at the interface between the motor and the cognitive systems. Specifically, we will be focusing on PD, vascular dementia, and schizophrenia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10040735","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]],"date-time":"2021-03-26T06:59:42Z","timestamp":1616741982000},"page":"735","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":426,"title":["Dopamine: The Neuromodulator of Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity, Reward and Movement Control"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Luisa","family":"Speranza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Umberto","family":"di Porzio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Genetics and Biophysics \u201cAdriano Buzzati Traverso\u201d, CNR, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2425-6057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Viggiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Genetic Research Institute \u201cGaetano Salvatore\u201d, University of Campania \u201cL. Vanvitelli\u201d, IT and Biogem S.c.a.r.l., 83031 Ariano Irpino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"de Donato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Genetic Research Institute \u201cGaetano Salvatore\u201d, University of Campania \u201cL. Vanvitelli\u201d, IT and Biogem S.c.a.r.l., 83031 Ariano Irpino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0618-5504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Floriana","family":"Volpicelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/0361-9230(82)90149-6","article-title":"Dopaminergic periglomerular cells in the turtle olfactory bulb","volume":"9","author":"Halasz","year":"1982","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/0197-0186(92)90166-O","article-title":"Localization and function of dopamine in the adult vertebrate retina","volume":"20","author":"Djamgoz","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"261","article-title":"The unexpected promiscuity of steroid hormones","volume":"43","author":"Pilgrim","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Histochem. EJH"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/0361-9230(93)90191-D","article-title":"Widespread dopaminergic projections of the subparafascicular thalamic nucleus in the rat","volume":"32","author":"Takada","year":"1993","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heares.2016.09.001","article-title":"Dopaminergic projections of the subparafascicular thalamic nucleus to the auditory brainstem","volume":"341","author":"Nevue","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2007.04.071","article-title":"GDNF signaling in embryonic midbrain neurons in vitro","volume":"1159","author":"Consales","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2018.02.006","article-title":"miR-34b\/c Regulates Wnt1 and Enhances Mesencephalic Dopaminergic Neuron Differentiation","volume":"10","author":"Pulcrano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greco, D., Volpicelli, F., Di Lieto, A., Leo, D., Perrone-Capano, C., Auvinen, P., and di Porzio, U. (2009). Comparison of gene expression profile in embryonic mesencephalon and neuronal primary cultures. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/bb336408-6ec5-480e-ae37-85e9cefe0454"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.950181008","article-title":"Epigenetic factors and midbrain dopaminergic neurone development","volume":"18","year":"1996","journal-title":"BioEssays News Rev. Mol. Cell. Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, A., Suresh, P., Gnanabharathi, B., Hirsch, E.C., and Ravindranath, V. (2020). Genes critical for development and differentiation of dopaminergic neurons are downregulated in Parkinson\u2019s disease. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.21.001552"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2007.04494.x","article-title":"Bdnf gene is a downstream target of Nurr1 transcription factor in rat midbrain neurons in vitro","volume":"102","author":"Volpicelli","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Volpicelli, F., De Gregorio, R., Pulcrano, S., Perrone-Capano, C., di Porzio, U., and Bellenchi, G.C. (2012). Direct regulation of Pitx3 expression by Nurr1 in culture and in developing mouse midbrain. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030661"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Volpicelli, F., Perrone-Capano, C., Bellenchi, G.C., Colucci-D\u2019Amato, L., and di Porzio, U. (2020). Molecular Regulation in Dopaminergic Neuron Development. Cues to Unveil Molecular Pathogenesis and Pharmacological Targets of Neurodegeneration. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21113995"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-4159.2003.02254.x","article-title":"Modulation of nurr1 gene expression in mesencephalic dopaminergic neurones","volume":"88","author":"Volpicelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2016.05.010","article-title":"G protein-coupled receptor kinases as regulators of dopamine receptor functions","volume":"111","author":"Gurevich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2268","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-07-02268.2001","article-title":"D1\/D5 dopamine receptor activation differentially modulates rapidly inactivating and persistent sodium currents in prefrontal cortex pyramidal neurons","volume":"21","author":"Maurice","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2008.05.021","article-title":"D(1) dopaminergic control of G protein-dependent inward rectifier K(+) (GIRK)-like channel current in pyramidal neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex","volume":"155","author":"Witkowski","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, C., Ge, S.N., Zhang, J.R., Chen, L., Yan, Z.Q., Heng, L.J., Zhao, T.Z., Li, W.X., Jia, D., and Zhu, J.L. (2013). Systemic blockade of dopamine D2-like receptors increases high-voltage spindles in the globus pallidus and motor cortex of freely moving rats. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0064637"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1998.78.1.189","article-title":"Dopamine receptors: From structure to function","volume":"78","author":"Missale","year":"1998","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2013.148","article-title":"Heteromeric dopamine receptor signaling complexes: Emerging neurobiology and disease relevance","volume":"39","author":"Perreault","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L312","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00255.2003","article-title":"G protein-coupled receptor kinase 5 regulates airway responses induced by muscarinic receptor activation","volume":"286","author":"Walker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.110.002642","article-title":"The physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of dopamine receptors","volume":"63","author":"Beaulieu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1432-1327.1999.00125.x","article-title":"Sequestration of dopamine D2 receptors depends on coexpression of G-protein-coupled receptor kinases 2 or 5","volume":"260","author":"Ito","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3771","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.271.7.3771","article-title":"Differential regulation of dopamine D1A receptor responsiveness by various G protein-coupled receptor kinases","volume":"271","author":"Tiberi","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21425","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.003665","article-title":"G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) regulates the phosphorylation and function of the dopamine D3 receptor","volume":"284","author":"Villar","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2002.00525.x","article-title":"Desensitization of human renal D1 dopamine receptors by G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4","volume":"62","author":"Watanabe","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2007.05104.x","article-title":"Altered expression and subcellular distribution of GRK subtypes in the dopamine-depleted rat basal ganglia is not normalized by l-DOPA treatment","volume":"104","author":"Ahmed","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135722","article-title":"Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses","volume":"30","author":"Schultz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1501672","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1501672","article-title":"Dopamine D1 signaling organizes network dynamics underlying working memory","volume":"2","author":"Roffman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2158-3","article-title":"Local and global consequences of reward-evoked striatal dopamine release","volume":"580","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2014.00015","article-title":"Evolution of the human brain: When bigger is better","volume":"8","author":"Hofman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neuroanat."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2014.00318","article-title":"The serotonin receptor 7 and the structural plasticity of brain circuits","volume":"8","author":"Volpicelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858414529829","article-title":"Heterosynaptic plasticity: Multiple mechanisms and multiple roles","volume":"20","author":"Chistiakova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/361031a0","article-title":"A synaptic model of memory: Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus","volume":"361","author":"Bliss","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1793","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2567-19.2020","article-title":"Heterosynaptic Plasticity in Cortical Interneurons","volume":"40","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/35036191","article-title":"Is heterosynaptic modulation essential for stabilizing Hebbian plasticity and memory?","volume":"1","author":"Bailey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1327","article-title":"Homeostatic plasticity in the developing nervous system","volume":"5","author":"Turrigiano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1038\/36103","article-title":"Activity-dependent scaling of quantal amplitude in neocortical neurons","volume":"391","author":"Turrigiano","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dopaminergic Modulation of Synaptic Plasticity, Its Role in Neuropsychiatric Disorders, and Its Computational Modeling","volume":"10","author":"Vahabie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Basic Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15571","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-15917-1","article-title":"Bidirectional modulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by Dopaminergic D4-receptors in the CA1 area of hippocampus","volume":"7","author":"Navakkode","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.105.091579","article-title":"Dopamine-mediated disinhibition in the CA1 region of rat hippocampus via D3 receptor activation","volume":"316","author":"Hammad","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brzosko, Z., Schultz, W., and Paulsen, O. (2015). Retroactive modulation of spike timing-dependent plasticity by dopamine. eLife, 4.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.09685"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3109","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4746-08.2009","article-title":"D1\/D5 modulation of synaptic NMDA receptor currents","volume":"29","author":"Varela","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15888","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2400-14.2014","article-title":"Dopamine D1 and D5 receptors modulate spike timing-dependent plasticity at medial perforant path to dentate granule cell synapses","volume":"34","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.10.002","article-title":"Novelty and Dopaminergic Modulation of Memory Persistence: A Tale of Two Systems","volume":"42","author":"Duszkiewicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14835","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1616515114","article-title":"Dopamine release from the locus coeruleus to the dorsal hippocampus promotes spatial learning and memory","volume":"113","author":"Kempadoo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1652","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1502295112","article-title":"Facilitation of fear extinction by novelty depends on dopamine acting on D1-subtype dopamine receptors in hippocampus","volume":"112","author":"Menezes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2017.02.002","article-title":"Extinction of avoidance behavior by safety learning depends on endocannabinoid signaling in the hippocampus","volume":"90","author":"Micale","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1038\/nature19325","article-title":"Locus coeruleus and dopaminergic consolidation of everyday memory","volume":"537","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/0361-9230(94)90288-7","article-title":"Anterograde and retrograde tracing of projections from the ventral tegmental area to the hippocampal formation in the rat","volume":"33","author":"Gasbarri","year":"1994","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghanbarian, E., and Motamedi, F. (2013). Ventral tegmental area inactivation suppresses the expression of CA1 long term potentiation in anesthetized rat. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0058844"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(80)90314-6","article-title":"Origin of dopaminergic innervation of the rat hippocampal formation","volume":"18","author":"Scatton","year":"1980","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1085\/jgp.201110659","article-title":"Co-transmission of dopamine and glutamate","volume":"139","author":"Broussard","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gen. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6072","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.6486-11.2012","article-title":"CNS dopamine transmission mediated by noradrenergic innervation","volume":"32","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12512","article-title":"Dopamine D1 or D2 receptor-expressing neurons in the central nervous system","volume":"23","author":"Wei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7062","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8062","article-title":"Ventral hippocampal afferents to the nucleus accumbens regulate susceptibility to depression","volume":"6","author":"Bagot","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-physiol-021115-105355","article-title":"Cortico-Basal Ganglia Circuit Function in Psychiatric Disease","volume":"78","author":"Gunaydin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(90)91578-5","article-title":"Dopaminergic antagonists prevent long-term maintenance of posttetanic LTP in the CA1 region of rat hippocampal slices","volume":"522","author":"Frey","year":"1990","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2011.07.006","article-title":"A neoHebbian framework for episodic memory; role of dopamine-dependent late LTP","volume":"34","author":"Lisman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1002\/dneu.20765","article-title":"Postsynaptic BDNF-TrkB signaling in synapse maturation, plasticity, and disease","volume":"70","author":"Yoshii","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2012.05.036","article-title":"Dopaminergic modulation of hippocampus-dependent learning: Blockade of hippocampal D1-class receptors during learning impairs 1-trial place memory at a 30-min retention delay","volume":"63","author":"Pezze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.01.070","article-title":"Dopamine Regulates Aversive Contextual Learning and Associated In Vivo Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus","volume":"14","author":"Broussard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7476","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1083-07.2007","article-title":"Induction of long-term memory by exposure to novelty requires protein synthesis: Evidence for a behavioral tagging","volume":"27","author":"Moncada","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1101\/lm.321006","article-title":"Dopaminergic modulation of the persistence of one-trial hippocampus-dependent memory","volume":"13","author":"Martin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Learn Mem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1172545","article-title":"Dopamine controls persistence of long-term memory storage","volume":"325","author":"Rossato","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19537","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1008638107","article-title":"Relevance of synaptic tagging and capture to the persistence of long-term potentiation and everyday spatial memory","volume":"107","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2017.05.005","article-title":"Two sources of dopamine for the hippocampus","volume":"40","author":"McNamara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E310","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1714082115","article-title":"Locus coeruleus input to hippocampal CA3 drives single-trial learning of a novel context","volume":"115","author":"Wagatsuma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2011.05.011","article-title":"Dopamine system dysregulation by the hippocampus: Implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia","volume":"62","author":"Grace","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-63425-2.00010-6","article-title":"The role of dopamine in Huntington\u2019s disease","volume":"211","author":"Cepeda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calabresi, P., Ghiglieri, V., Mazzocchetti, P., Corbelli, I., and Picconi, B. (2015). Levodopa-induced plasticity: A double-edged sword in Parkinson\u2019s disease?. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci., 370.","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0184"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2003.08.009","article-title":"Altered midbrain dopaminergic neurotransmission during development in an animal model of ADHD","volume":"27","author":"Leo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-012-8278-5","article-title":"Role of dopamine receptors in ADHD: A systematic meta-analysis","volume":"45","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5192","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-0065-2","article-title":"Rare Genetic Variants of the Transthyretin Gene Are Associated with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in Han Chinese","volume":"54","author":"Xiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.01.027","article-title":"Catecholamine influences on dorsolateral prefrontal cortical networks","volume":"69","author":"Arnsten","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.08.038","article-title":"Neuromodulation of thought: Flexibilities and vulnerabilities in prefrontal cortical network synapses","volume":"76","author":"Arnsten","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2018.12.006","article-title":"Dopamine and Cognitive Control in Prefrontal Cortex","volume":"23","author":"Ott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2014.00033","article-title":"The role of prefrontal catecholamines in attention and working memory","volume":"8","author":"Clark","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neural Circuits"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.01.008","article-title":"Neuromodulation of Attention","volume":"97","author":"Thiele","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Louth, E.L., J\u00f8rgensen, R.L., Korsh\u00f8j, A.R., S\u00f8rensen, J.C.H., and Capogna, M. (2020). Dopaminergic neuromodulation of spike timing dependent plasticity in mature adult rodent and human cortical neurons. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.05.15.098400"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2014.00038","article-title":"Dopamine-enabled anti-Hebbian timing-dependent plasticity in prefrontal circuitry","volume":"8","author":"Ruan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neural Circuits"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/8.4.321","article-title":"Widespread origin of the primate mesofrontal dopamine system","volume":"8","author":"Williams","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2005.1631","article-title":"Lateral prefrontal cortex: Architectonic and functional organization","volume":"360","author":"Petrides","year":"2005","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2008.08.008","article-title":"Forward frontal fields: Phylogeny and fundamental function","volume":"31","author":"Wise","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(78)90253-6","article-title":"Catecholamine theories of reward: A critical review","volume":"152","author":"Wise","year":"1978","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1986.56.5.1439","article-title":"Responses of midbrain dopamine neurons to behavioral trigger stimuli in the monkey","volume":"56","author":"Schultz","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1998.80.1.1","article-title":"Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons","volume":"80","author":"Schultz","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2016.18.1\/wschultz","article-title":"Dopamine reward prediction error coding","volume":"18","author":"Schultz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1990.63.3.607","article-title":"Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: Contingencies of responses to stimuli eliciting immediate behavioral reactions","volume":"63","author":"Schultz","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1936","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.16-05-01936.1996","article-title":"A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning","volume":"16","author":"Montague","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4173","article-title":"Mesolimbic dopamine signals the value of work","volume":"19","author":"Hamid","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3413","article-title":"A causal link between prediction errors, dopamine neurons and learning","volume":"16","author":"Steinberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-019-0574-1","article-title":"Causal evidence supporting the proposal that dopamine transients function as temporal difference prediction errors","volume":"23","author":"Maes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13953-1","article-title":"Dopamine transients do not act as model-free prediction errors during associative learning","volume":"11","author":"Sharpe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2020.01.012","article-title":"Cue-Evoked Dopamine Promotes Conditioned Responding during Learning","volume":"106","author":"Morrens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardner, M.P.H., Schoenbaum, G., and Gershman, S.J. (2018). Rethinking dopamine as generalized prediction error. Proc. Biol. Sci., 285.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2018.1645"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stalnaker, T.A., Howard, J.D., Takahashi, Y.K., Gershman, S.J., Kahnt, T., and Schoenbaum, G. (2019). Dopamine neuron ensembles signal the content of sensory prediction errors. eLife, 8.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.49315"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.08.025","article-title":"Dopamine Neurons Respond to Errors in the Prediction of Sensory Features of Expected Rewards","volume":"95","author":"Takahashi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.11.050","article-title":"Ventral Tegmental Dopamine Neurons Participate in Reward Identity Predictions","volume":"29","author":"Keiflin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0222-1","article-title":"Dopamine neurons projecting to the posterior striatum reinforce avoidance of threatening stimuli","volume":"21","author":"Menegas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menegas, W., Babayan, B.M., Uchida, N., and Watabe-Uchida, M. (2017). Opposite initialization to novel cues in dopamine signaling in ventral and posterior striatum in mice. eLife, 6.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.21886"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2020.03.016","article-title":"Amygdala-Midbrain Connections Modulate Appetitive and Aversive Learning","volume":"106","author":"Steinberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, L.X., Pizano, K., Gundersen, G.W., Hayes, C.L., Fleming, W.T., Holt, S., Cox, J.M., and Witten, I.B. (2020). Distinct signals in medial and lateral VTA dopamine neurons modulate fear extinction at different times. eLife, 9.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.54936"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1261-9","article-title":"Specialized coding of sensory, motor and cognitive variables in VTA dopamine neurons","volume":"570","author":"Engelhard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.10.007","article-title":"The BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Consortium: Lessons Learned toward Generating a Comprehensive Brain Cell Atlas","volume":"96","author":"Ecker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2020.01.004","article-title":"Classification of Midbrain Dopamine Neurons Using Single-Cell Gene Expression Profiling Approaches","volume":"43","author":"Poulin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, D.J., Risso, D., Kosillo, P., Ngai, J., and Bateup, H.S. (2018). Combinatorial Expression of Grp and Neurod6 Defines Dopamine Neuron Populations with Distinct Projection Patterns and Disease Vulnerability. eNeuro, 5.","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0152-18.2018"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.11.024","article-title":"Synergy of Distinct Dopamine Projection Populations in Behavioral Reinforcement","volume":"105","author":"Heymann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2016.165","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area: Cellular heterogeneity, connectivity and behaviour","volume":"18","author":"Morales","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13697","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13697","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area glutamate neurons co-release GABA and promote positive reinforcement","volume":"7","author":"Yoo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4281","article-title":"VTA glutamatergic inputs to nucleus accumbens drive aversion by acting on GABAergic interneurons","volume":"19","author":"Qi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11657","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area GABA projections pause accumbal cholinergic interneurons to enhance associative learning","volume":"492","author":"Brown","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-3806(92)90105-6","article-title":"Ultrastructure of spared dopamine terminals in caudate-putamen nuclei of adult rats neonatally treated with intranigral 6-hydroxydopamine","volume":"70","author":"Pickel","year":"1992","journal-title":"Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(92)90947-8","article-title":"Cortical input to parvalbumin-immunoreactive neurones in the putamen of the squirrel monkey","volume":"580","author":"Lapper","year":"1992","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-061010-113641","article-title":"Modulation of striatal projection systems by dopamine","volume":"34","author":"Gerfen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(06)60001-0","article-title":"Basal ganglia macrocircuits","volume":"160","author":"Tepper","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.10.041","article-title":"Dopamine D2 receptors regulate the anatomical and functional balance of basal ganglia circuitry","volume":"81","author":"Cazorla","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3743","article-title":"Direct and indirect pathways of basal ganglia: A critical reappraisal","volume":"17","author":"Calabresi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.12906","article-title":"Dopamine receptors\u2014IUPHAR Review 13","volume":"172","author":"Beaulieu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144206","article-title":"Desensitization of G protein-coupled receptors and neuronal functions","volume":"27","author":"Gainetdinov","year":"2004","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6692","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3906-13.2014","article-title":"Cyclic AMP and afferent activity govern bidirectional synaptic plasticity in striatopallidal neurons","volume":"34","author":"Augustin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12513","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2236-11.2011","article-title":"Dopamine-dependent long-term depression is expressed in striatal spiny neurons of both direct and indirect pathways: Implications for Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"31","author":"Bagetta","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.08.042","article-title":"Dual Dopaminergic Regulation of Corticostriatal Plasticity by Cholinergic Interneurons and Indirect Pathway Medium Spiny Neurons","volume":"24","author":"Augustin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11609","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1608362113","article-title":"Dopamine D2 receptors in striatal output neurons enable the psychomotor effects of cocaine","volume":"113","author":"Kharkwal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2450","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2014.97","article-title":"Selective deletion of GRK2 alters psychostimulant-induced behaviors and dopamine neurotransmission","volume":"39","author":"Daigle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8653","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2582-06.2006","article-title":"Phenotype of striatofugal medium spiny neurons in parkinsonian and dyskinetic nonhuman primates: A call for a reappraisal of the functional organization of the basal ganglia","volume":"26","author":"Nadjar","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.09.020","article-title":"Information content of dendritic spines after motor learning","volume":"336","author":"Viggiano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4187","article-title":"Action initiation shapes mesolimbic dopamine encoding of future rewards","volume":"19","author":"Syed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2020.05.003","article-title":"Ventral Tegmental Dopamine Neurons Control the Impulse Vector during Motivated Behavior","volume":"30","author":"Hughes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S17","DOI":"10.1097\/00019052-200312002-00004","article-title":"Dopamine and cognitive function","volume":"16","author":"Pillon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00007725","article-title":"Cognitive deficits in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"244","author":"Dubois","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"9","article-title":"Can levodopa prevent cognitive decline in patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease?","volume":"6","author":"Ikeda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Neurodegener. Dis."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03033137","article-title":"Dopamine- or L-DOPA-induced neurotoxicity: The role of dopamine quinone formation and tyrosinase in a model of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"5","author":"Asanuma","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurotox. Res."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.27172","article-title":"Levodopa treatment and dendritic spine pathology","volume":"33","author":"Nishijima","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mov. Disord. Off. J. Mov. Disord. Soc."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.00041","article-title":"The Relationship Between the Striatal Dopaminergic Neuronal and Cognitive Function With Aging","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1778","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-012-2207-8","article-title":"Voxel-based analysis of whole-brain effects of age and gender on dopamine transporter SPECT imaging in healthy subjects","volume":"39","author":"Eusebio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"1521","article-title":"Dopamine transporter imaging with fluorine-18-FPCIT and PET","volume":"39","author":"Kazumata","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-018-3976-5","article-title":"Japanese multicenter database of healthy controls for [(123)I]FP-CIT SPECT","volume":"45","author":"Matsuda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-012-2276-8","article-title":"European multicentre database of healthy controls for [123I]FP-CIT SPECT (ENC-DAT): Age-related effects, gender differences and evaluation of different methods of analysis","volume":"40","author":"Varrone","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15133","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3739-14.2014","article-title":"The effects of aging on substantia nigra dopamine neurons","volume":"34","author":"Costa","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.1989.tb09212.x","article-title":"Development and ageing of the rat nigrostriatal dopamine system studied with fast cyclic voltammetry","volume":"52","author":"Stamford","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-5748(00)00009-5","article-title":"In vivo microdialysis studies of age-related alterations in potassium-evoked overflow of dopamine in the dorsal striatum of Fischer 344 rats","volume":"18","author":"Stanford","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00925","article-title":"Methylphenidate Treatment of Cognitive Dysfunction in Adults After Mild to Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury: Rationale, Efficacy, and Neural Mechanisms","volume":"10","author":"Levin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X17666191010093021","article-title":"Amphetamine Use in the Elderly: A Systematic Review of the Literature","volume":"18","author":"Sassi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-019-0567-z","article-title":"Methylphenidate and galantamine in patients with vascular cognitive impairment-the proof-of-principle study STREAM-VCI","volume":"12","author":"Leijenaar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2013.11.003","article-title":"Dopaminergic basis of salience dysregulation in psychosis","volume":"37","author":"Ungless","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(93)90044-E","article-title":"Loss of striatal cholinergic neurons as a basis for tardive and L-dopa-induced dyskinesias, neuroleptic-induced supersensitivity psychosis and refractory schizophrenia","volume":"34","author":"Miller","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1301521","article-title":"Dopamine depletion of the prefrontal cortex induces dendritic spine loss: Reversal by atypical antipsychotic drug treatment","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2010.08.025","article-title":"D2 and D4 dopamine receptor mRNA distribution in pyramidal neurons and GABAergic subpopulations in monkey prefrontal cortex: Implications for schizophrenia treatment","volume":"170","author":"Mengod","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_150","first-page":"205","article-title":"Cortical localization of dopamine D4 receptors in the rat brain--immunocytochemical study","volume":"51","author":"Wedzony","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2013.00102","article-title":"Dopamine, cognitive function, and gamma oscillations: Role of D4 receptors","volume":"7","author":"Furth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2008.06.033","article-title":"The hyperactive syndrome: Metanalysis of genetic alterations, pharmacological treatments and brain lesions which increase locomotor activity","volume":"194","author":"Viggiano","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2015.05.032","article-title":"Anxiety as a neurodevelopmental disorder in a neuronal subpopulation: Evidence from gene expression data","volume":"228","author":"Viggiano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.01.036","article-title":"A meta-analytic approach to genes that are associated with impaired and elevated spatial memory performance","volume":"261","author":"Bellenchi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/4\/735\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:41:26Z","timestamp":1760161286000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/4\/735"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]]},"references-count":154,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["cells10040735"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells10040735","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]]}}}