{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T12:22:36Z","timestamp":1784204556880,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]],"date-time":"2021-04-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIH R01 GM127596"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH R01 GM127596"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIH R01HL142758"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH R01HL142758"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extracellular vesicles (EVs) refer to a heterogenous population of membrane-bound vesicles that are released by cells under physiological and pathological conditions. The detection of EVs in the majority of the bodily fluids, coupled with their diverse cargo comprising of DNA, RNA, lipids, and proteins, have led to the accumulated interests in leveraging these nanoparticles for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. In particular, emerging studies have identified enhanced levels of a wide range of specific subclasses of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in EVs, thereby suggesting the existence of highly selective and regulated molecular processes governing the sorting of these RNAs into EVs. Recent studies have also illustrated the functional relevance of these enriched ncRNAs in a variety of human diseases. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on EV-ncRNAs, as well as their functions and significance in lung infection and injury. As a majority of the studies on EV-ncRNAs in lung diseases have focused on EV-microRNAs, we will particularly highlight the relevance of these molecules in the pathophysiology of these conditions, as well as their potential as novel biomarkers therein. We also outline the current challenges in the EV field amidst the tremendous efforts to propel the clinical utility of EVs for human diseases. The lack of published literature on the functional roles of other EV-ncRNA subtypes may in turn provide new avenues for future research to exploit their feasibility as novel diagnostic and therapeutic targets in human diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10050965","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]],"date-time":"2021-04-21T12:47:07Z","timestamp":1619009227000},"page":"965","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Extracellular Vesicle Associated Non-Coding RNAs in Lung Infections and Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Zhi Hao","family":"Kwok","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Campus 72 E Concord St. R304. Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kareemah","family":"Ni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Campus 72 E Concord St. R304. Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Campus 72 E Concord St. R304. Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD Chronic Respiratory Disease Collaborators (2020). Prevalence and attributable health burden of chronic respiratory diseases, 1990\u20132017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet Respir. Med., 8, 585\u2013596."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2015.04.013","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles shuffling intercellular messages: For good or for bad","volume":"35","author":"Stahl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Latifkar, A., Hur, Y.H., Sanchez, J.C., Cerione, R.A., and Antonyak, M.A. (2019). New insights into extracellular vesicle biogenesis and function. J. Cell Sci., 132.","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.222406"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm.2017.125","article-title":"Shedding light on the cell biology of extracellular vesicles","volume":"19","author":"Raposo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-019-0362-8","article-title":"Apoptotic cell-derived exosomes: Messages from dying cells","volume":"52","author":"Kakarla","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1080\/21541248.2016.1215283","article-title":"Biology and biogenesis of shed microvesicles","volume":"8","author":"Tricarico","year":"2017","journal-title":"Small GTPases"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-019-0282-2","article-title":"Exosomes: Biogenesis, biologic function and clinical potential","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Biosci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535745","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2018.1535745","article-title":"Towards mechanisms and standardization in extracellular vesicle and extracellular RNA studies: Results of a worldwide survey","volume":"7","author":"Soekmadji","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535750","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2018.1535750","article-title":"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): A position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines","volume":"7","author":"Thery","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26913","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v3.26913","article-title":"Minimal experimental requirements for definition of extracellular vesicles and their functions: A position statement from the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"3","author":"Lotvall","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1111\/tra.12558","article-title":"The biology of extracellular microvesicles","volume":"19","author":"Sedgwick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Traffic"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2017.08.022","article-title":"Biogenesis and function of ESCRT-dependent extracellular vesicles","volume":"74","author":"Juan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Semin Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1080\/19336918.2016.1225632","article-title":"Syntenin: Key player in cancer exosome biogenesis and uptake?","volume":"11","author":"Fares","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Adh. Migr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R083915","article-title":"Role of sphingolipids in the biogenesis and biological activity of extracellular vesicles","volume":"59","author":"Verderio","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00442","article-title":"Tetraspanins in extracellular vesicle formation and function","volume":"5","author":"Andreu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwok, Z.H., Wang, C., and Jin, Y. (2021). Extracellular Vesicle Transportation and Uptake by Recipient Cells: A Critical Process to Regulate Human Diseases. Processes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9020273"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00948","article-title":"Post-translational Modification Regulates Formation and Cargo-Loading of Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"11","author":"Carnino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ni, K., Wang, C., Carnino, J.M., and Jin, Y. (2020). The Evolving Role of Caveolin-1: A Critical Regulator of Extracellular Vesicles. Med. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/medsci8040046"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15756","article-title":"Tumour exosome integrins determine organotropic metastasis","volume":"527","author":"Hoshino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31053","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v5.31053","article-title":"Display of GPI-anchored anti-EGFR nanobodies on extracellular vesicles promotes tumour cell targeting","volume":"5","author":"Kooijmans","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-017-2664-0","article-title":"Amyloid precursor protein products concentrate in a subset of exosomes specifically endocytosed by neurons","volume":"75","author":"Laulagnier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-018-0437-z","article-title":"Exosome origin determines cell targeting and the transfer of therapeutic nanoparticles towards target cells","volume":"17","author":"Navascues","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1186\/s11671-020-03399-6","article-title":"Kinetics and Specificity of HEK293T Extracellular Vesicle Uptake using Imaging Flow Cytometry","volume":"15","author":"Jurgielewicz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11920","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-48499-1","article-title":"Assessing the role of surface glycans of extracellular vesicles on cellular uptake","volume":"9","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mir, B., and Goettsch, C. (2020). Extracellular Vesicles as Delivery Vehicles of Specific Cellular Cargo. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9071601"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-015-0116-z","article-title":"Human bone marrow- and adipose-mesenchymal stem cells secrete exosomes enriched in distinctive miRNA and tRNA species","volume":"6","author":"Baglio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms1285","article-title":"Unidirectional transfer of microRNA-loaded exosomes from T cells to antigen-presenting cells","volume":"2","author":"Mittelbrunn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-02803-4","article-title":"Bioactive DNA from extracellular vesicles and particles","volume":"11","author":"Malkin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00202","article-title":"Transcriptome of Extracellular Vesicles: State-of-the-Art","volume":"10","author":"Turchinovich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2020.00700","article-title":"Characterizing Extracellular Vesicles and Their Diverse RNA Contents","volume":"11","author":"Veziroglu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2018.00402","article-title":"Overview of MicroRNA Biogenesis, Mechanisms of Actions, and Circulation","volume":"9","author":"Hayder","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1038\/s41576-018-0073-3","article-title":"PIWI-interacting RNAs: Small RNAs with big functions","volume":"20","author":"Ozata","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3947","article-title":"An integrated expression atlas of miRNAs and their promoters in human and mouse","volume":"35","author":"Abugessaisa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2017.03.039","article-title":"MiR-23a-5p modulates mycobacterial survival and autophagy during mycobacterium tuberculosis infection through TLR2\/MyD88\/NF-kappaB pathway by targeting TLR2","volume":"354","author":"Gu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L465","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00224.2015","article-title":"MicroRNA-155 regulates host immune response to postviral bacterial pneumonia via IL-23\/IL-17 pathway","volume":"310","author":"Podsiad","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2017.11.030","article-title":"Role of miR-195 in cigarette smoke-induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"55","author":"Gu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6615","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.26274","article-title":"miR-34b-5p inhibition attenuates lung inflammation and apoptosis in an LPS-induced acute lung injury mouse model by targeting progranulin","volume":"233","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20160376","article-title":"Long noncoding RNAs: Lincs between human health and disease","volume":"45","author":"Kwok","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loda, A., and Heard, E. (2019). Xist RNA in action: Past, present, and future. PLoS Genet., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1008333"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1853","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bby055","article-title":"The small peptide world in long noncoding RNAs","volume":"20","author":"Choi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21034","article-title":"mTORC1 and muscle regeneration are regulated by the LINC00961-encoded SPAR polypeptide","volume":"541","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4472","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201700091R","article-title":"Long noncoding RNA FOXD3-AS1 regulates oxidative stress-induced apoptosis via sponging microRNA-150","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-018-0744-4","article-title":"The lncRNA H19 Mediates Pulmonary Fibrosis by Regulating the miR-196a\/COL1A1 Axis","volume":"41","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10813","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-28485-9","article-title":"Heterogeneity and interplay of the extracellular vesicle small RNA transcriptome and proteome","volume":"8","author":"Sork","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pigati, L., Yaddanapudi, S.C., Iyengar, R., Kim, D.J., Hearn, S.A., Danforth, D., Hastings, M.L., and Duelli, D.M. (2010). Selective release of microRNA species from normal and malignant mammary epithelial cells. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0013515"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9272","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gks658","article-title":"Deep sequencing of RNA from immune cell-derived vesicles uncovers the selective incorporation of small non-coding RNA biotypes with potential regulatory functions","volume":"40","author":"Buermans","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.11.073","article-title":"Selective Export into Extracellular Vesicles and Function of tRNA Fragments during T Cell Activation","volume":"25","author":"Chiou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D106","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkx891","article-title":"exoRBase: A database of circRNA, lncRNA and mRNA in human blood exosomes","volume":"46","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D89","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky985","article-title":"EVmiRNA: A database of miRNA profiling in extracellular vesicles","volume":"47","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2980","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms3980","article-title":"Sumoylated hnRNPA2B1 controls the sorting of miRNAs into exosomes through binding to specific motifs","volume":"4","author":"Vazquez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20182313","article-title":"Caveolin-1 selectively regulates microRNA sorting into microvesicles after noxious stimuli","volume":"216","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1002\/cbf.3323","article-title":"Cancer cells govern miR-2909 exosomal recruitment through its 3\u2019-end post-transcriptional modification","volume":"36","author":"Wani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Funct."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2018.07.039","article-title":"Sphk2 RNAi nanoparticles suppress tumor growth via downregulating cancer cell derived exosomal microRNA","volume":"286","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1002\/cbin.10301","article-title":"Long non-coding RNAs with low expression levels in cells are enriched in secreted exosomes","volume":"38","author":"Gezer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Int."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2015.82","article-title":"Circular RNA is enriched and stable in exosomes: A promising biomarker for cancer diagnosis","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37982","DOI":"10.1038\/srep37982","article-title":"Circular RNAs are down-regulated in KRAS mutant colon cancer cells and can be transferred to exosomes","volume":"6","author":"Dou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbapap.2017.03.010","article-title":"Cytosolic YB-1 and NSUN2 are the only proteins recognizing specific motifs present in mRNAs enriched in exosomes","volume":"1865","author":"Kossinova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Proteins Proteom"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2017.11.007","article-title":"Structural features of the interaction of the 3\u2019-untranslated region of mRNA containing exosomal RNA-specific motifs with YB-1, a potential mediator of mRNA sorting","volume":"144","author":"Yanshina","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2018-212994","article-title":"A potential role of microvesicle-containing miR-223\/142 in lung inflammation","volume":"74","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15376","article-title":"Microenvironment-induced PTEN loss by exosomal microRNA primes brain metastasis outgrowth","volume":"527","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.01.073","article-title":"Glioma-Derived miRNA-Containing Extracellular Vesicles Induce Angiogenesis by Reprogramming Brain Endothelial Cells","volume":"30","author":"Lucero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2019.08.036","article-title":"Glioblastoma-Associated Microglia Reprogramming Is Mediated by Functional Transfer of Extracellular miR-21","volume":"28","author":"Abels","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2019.09.003","article-title":"Long Noncoding RNA-Enriched Vesicles Secreted by Hypoxic Cardiomyocytes Drive Cardiac Fibrosis","volume":"18","author":"Kenneweg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-019-0299-0","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle-packaged HIF-1alpha-stabilizing lncRNA from tumour-associated macrophages regulates aerobic glycolysis of breast cancer cells","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-019-0553-6","article-title":"Exosome-delivered and Y RNA-derived small RNA suppresses influenza virus replication","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1372","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy035","article-title":"Lung-Derived Exosomal miR-483-3p Regulates the Innate Immune Response to Influenza Virus Infection","volume":"217","author":"Maemura","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"4306","article-title":"Identification of potential diagnostic biomarkers for pneumonia caused by adenovirus infection in children by screening serum exosomal microRNAs","volume":"19","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-017-1205-9","article-title":"Bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) infection induces exosomal miRNA release by human macrophages","volume":"15","author":"Alipoor","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907426","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1907426","article-title":"Serum Exosomal miRNAs Are Associated with Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis","volume":"2019","author":"Alipoor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dis. Markers"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2019.01.022","article-title":"Mesenchymal stromal cells-derived exosomes alleviate ischemia\/reperfusion injury in mouse lung by transporting anti-apoptotic miR-21-5p","volume":"852","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2019.05.035","article-title":"Exosomes derived from microRNA-30b-3p-overexpressing mesenchymal stem cells protect against lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury by inhibiting SAA3","volume":"383","author":"Yi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28388","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v4.28388","article-title":"Suppression of autophagy by extracellular vesicles promotes myofibroblast differentiation in COPD pathogenesis","volume":"4","author":"Fujita","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5419","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.27876","article-title":"Exosomal microRNA-21 derived from bronchial epithelial cells is involved in aberrant epithelium-fibroblast cross-talk in COPD induced by cigarette smoking","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2012.11.039","article-title":"Altered microRNA profiles in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid exosomes in asthmatic patients","volume":"131","author":"Levanen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.13016","article-title":"Selective release of miRNAs via extracellular vesicles is associated with house-dust mite allergen-induced airway inflammation","volume":"47","author":"Gon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-016-0427-3","article-title":"Serum extracellular vesicular miR-21-5p is a predictor of the prognosis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"17","author":"Makiguchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lal, C.V., Olave, N., Travers, C., Rezonzew, G., Dolma, K., Simpson, A., Halloran, B., Aghai, Z., Das, P., and Sharma, N. (2018). Exosomal microRNA predicts and protects against severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia in extremely premature infants. JCI Insight, 3.","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.93994"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pop.2018.04.001","article-title":"Guidelines for the Evaluation and Treatment of Pneumonia","volume":"45","author":"Grief","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2018.12.008","article-title":"Identification of miRNA-rich vesicles in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid: Insights into the function and heterogeneity of extracellular vesicles","volume":"294","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61459-6","article-title":"Viral pneumonia","volume":"377","author":"Ruuskanen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, B.W., Song, Y.G., and Lee, S.H. (2017). Severe community-acquired adenovirus pneumonia treated with oral ribavirin: A case report. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-016-2370-2"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"4213541","article-title":"Exosome-Mediated Transfer of ACE2 (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2) from Endothelial Progenitor Cells Promotes Survival and Function of Endothelial Cell","volume":"2020","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell Longev."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9994","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.9994","article-title":"Potential role of cellular miRNAs in coronavirus-host interplay","volume":"8","author":"Nersisyan","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1111\/tra.12278","article-title":"Exosomal RNA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Infected Cells Is Functional in Recipient Macrophages","volume":"16","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Traffic"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.21907","article-title":"Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment","volume":"319","author":"Fan","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1111\/cas.13334","article-title":"Double-edged sword of mesenchymal stem cells: Cancer-promoting versus therapeutic potential","volume":"108","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30418-1","article-title":"Treatment with allogeneic mesenchymal stromal cells for moderate to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (START study): A randomised phase 2a safety trial","volume":"7","author":"Matthay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20160253","article-title":"Pathogenesis of asthma: Implications for precision medicine","volume":"131","author":"Russell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00217","article-title":"Identification of Exosomal miRNAs in Rats with Pulmonary Neutrophilic Inflammation Induced by Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles","volume":"9","author":"Qiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1417-7","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: Clinical aspects and preventive and therapeutic strategies","volume":"16","author":"Principi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1007\/s12015-020-10085-8","article-title":"Effects of Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Lung Diseases: Current Status and Future Perspectives","volume":"17","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rev. Rep."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600711","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.600711","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Lung Diseases: Current Status and Perspectives","volume":"9","author":"Abreu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e599","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000004315","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Alleviate Acute Lung Injury Via Transfer of miR-27a-3p","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1801534","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Decrease Lung Injury in Mice","volume":"203","author":"Hao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/5\/965\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:50:41Z","timestamp":1760161841000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/5\/965"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["cells10050965"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells10050965","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]]}}}