{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T14:08:10Z","timestamp":1791209290150,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":160,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]],"date-time":"2021-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel","award":["001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Th17 cells are recognized as indispensable in inducing protective immunity against bacteria and fungi, as they promote the integrity of mucosal epithelial barriers. It is believed that Th17 cells also play a central role in the induction of autoimmune diseases. Recent advances have evaluated Th17 effector functions during viral infections, including their critical role in the production and induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and in the recruitment and activation of other immune cells. Thus, Th17 is involved in the induction both of pathogenicity and immunoprotective mechanisms seen in the host\u2019s immune response against viruses. However, certain Th17 cells can also modulate immune responses, since they can secrete immunosuppressive factors, such as IL-10; these cells are called non-pathogenic Th17 cells. Here, we present a brief review of Th17 cells and highlight their involvement in some virus infections. We cover these notions by highlighting the role of Th17 cells in regulating the protective and pathogenic immune response in the context of viral infections. In addition, we will be describing myocarditis and multiple sclerosis as examples of immune diseases triggered by viral infections, in which we will discuss further the roles of Th17 cells in the induction of tissue damage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10051159","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]],"date-time":"2021-05-11T10:20:36Z","timestamp":1620728436000},"page":"1159","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Th17 Cells in Viral Infections\u2014Friend or Foe?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Iury Amancio","family":"Paiva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J\u00e9ssica","family":"Badolato-Corr\u00eaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9229-5912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D\u00e9bora","family":"Familiar-Macedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luzia Maria","family":"de-Oliveira-Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2348","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.136.7.2348","article-title":"Two types of murine helper T cell clone. I. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins","volume":"136","author":"Mosmann","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/ni0606-539","article-title":"Origins of the TH1-TH2 model: A personal perspective","volume":"7","author":"Coffman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.136.3.949","article-title":"A T cell activity that enhances polyclonal IgE production and its inhibition by interferon-gamma","volume":"136","author":"Coffman","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.165.1.157","article-title":"B cell stimulatory factor I (interleukin 4) is a potent costimulant for normal resting T lymphocytes","volume":"165","author":"Shevach","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3688","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.138.11.3688","article-title":"Two types of murine helper T cell clone. II. Delayed-type hypersensitivity is mediated by TH1 clones","volume":"138","author":"Cher","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.iy.07.040189.001045","article-title":"TH1 and TH2 cells: Different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties","volume":"7","author":"Mosmann","year":"1989","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.iy.13.040195.001055","article-title":"The regulation of immunity to Leishmania major","volume":"13","author":"Reiner","year":"1995","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20031819","article-title":"Loss of T-bet, but not STAT1, prevents the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"200","author":"Bettelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1641","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.1830260735","article-title":"Interferon-\u03b3 confers resistance to experimental allergic encephalomyelitis","volume":"26","author":"Krakowski","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-5728(94)90069-8","article-title":"Effect of anti-interferon-\u03b3 monoclonal antibody treatment on the development of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in resistant mouse strains","volume":"53","author":"Duong","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(00)00070-4","article-title":"Novel p19 protein engages IL-12p40 to form a cytokine, IL-23, with biological activities similar as well as distinct from IL-12","volume":"13","author":"Oppmann","year":"2000","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2020.113928","article-title":"New insights into the IL-12 and IL-23: From a molecular basis to clinical application in immune-mediated inflammation and cancers","volume":"175","author":"Chyuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2004-05-1718","article-title":"Extracellular nucleotide signaling by P2 receptors inhibits IL-12 and enhances IL-23 expression in human dendritic cells: A novel role for the cAMP pathway","volume":"105","author":"Schnurr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.03-1367fje","article-title":"Prostaglandin E2 induces IL-23 production in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells","volume":"18","author":"Sheibanie","year":"2004","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M207577200","article-title":"Interleukin-23 promotes a distinct CD4 T cell activation state characterized by the production of interleukin-17","volume":"278","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01355","article-title":"Interleukin-23 rather than interleukin-12 is the critical cytokine for autoimmune inflammation of the brain","volume":"421","author":"Cua","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1261","article-title":"A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells regulates tissue inflammation by producing interleukin 17","volume":"6","author":"Park","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1254","article-title":"Interleukin 17-producing CD4+ effector T cells develop via a lineage distinct from the T helper type 1 and 2 lineages","volume":"6","author":"Harrington","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.021908.132710","article-title":"IL-17 and Th17 cells","volume":"27","author":"Korn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3707","article-title":"IL-23-IL-17 immune axis: Discovery, Mechanistic Understanding, and Clinical Testing","volume":"14","author":"Gaffen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.07.035","article-title":"The Orphan Nuclear Receptor ROR\u03b3t Directs the Differentiation Program of Proinflammatory IL-17+ T Helper Cells","volume":"126","author":"Ivanov","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200939540","article-title":"RORC2: The master of human Th17 cell programming","volume":"39","author":"Unutmas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/aps.2014.120","article-title":"ROR nuclear receptors: Structures, related diseases, and drug discovery","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capone, A., and Volpe, E. (2020). Transcriptional Regulators of T Helper 17 Cell Differentiation in Health and Autoimmune Diseases. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00348"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2007.11.016","article-title":"TH17 lineage differentiation is programmed by orphan nuclear receptors ROR\u03b1 and ROR\u03b3","volume":"28","author":"Yang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06880","article-title":"Control of Treg and TH17 cell differentiation by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor","volume":"453","author":"Quintana","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2010.05.003","article-title":"Diverse Targets of the Transcription Factor STAT3 Contribute to T Cell Pathogenicity and Homeostasis","volume":"32","author":"Durant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.09.016","article-title":"A validated regulatory network for Th17 cell specification","volume":"151","author":"Ciofani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Genome-wide regulatory analysis reveals T-bet controls Th17 lineage differentiation through direct suppression of IRF41","volume":"191","author":"Dong","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"96","article-title":"T-bet represses TH 17 differentiation by preventing Runx1-mediated activation of the ROR\u03b3t gene","volume":"12","author":"Lazarevic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06878","article-title":"TGF-\u03b2-induced Foxp3 inhibits Th17 cell differentiation by antagonizing ROR\u03b3t function","volume":"453","author":"Zhou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1663","article-title":"Interactions among the transcription factors Runx1, ROR\u03b3t and Foxp3 regulate the differentiation of interleukin 17-producing T cells","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12204","article-title":"Transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of T-helper lineage specification","volume":"261","author":"Tripathi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20070663","article-title":"Phenotypic and functional features of human Th17 cells","volume":"204","author":"Annunziato","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1467","article-title":"Surface phenotype and antigenic specificity of human interleukin 17-producing T helper memory cells","volume":"8","author":"Rivino","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.1.214","article-title":"Human T Cells That Are Able to Produce IL-17 Express the Chemokine Receptor CCR6","volume":"180","author":"Singh","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mn.7800196","article-title":"Chemokines in lymphocyte trafficking and intestinal immunity","volume":"10","author":"Kunkel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microcirculation"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-032713-120225","article-title":"Immunology of psoriasis","volume":"32","author":"Lowes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1716","article-title":"C-C chemokine receptor 6-regulated entry of TH-17 cells into the CNS through the choroid plexus is required for the initiation of EAE","volume":"10","author":"Reboldi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20080397","article-title":"Human interleukin 17-producing cells originate from a CD161 +CD4+ T cell precursor","volume":"205","author":"Cosmi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10957","article-title":"Pathogen-induced human TH17 cells produce IFN-\u03b3 or IL-10 and are regulated by IL-1\u03b2","volume":"484","author":"Zielinski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaa4282","article-title":"Impairment of immunity to Candida and Mycobacterium in humans with bi-allelic RORC mutations","volume":"349","author":"Okada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1302734","article-title":"IL-1\u03b2 promotes the differentiation of polyfunctional human CCR6+ CXCR3+ Th1\/17 cells that are specific for pathogenic and commensal microbes","volume":"193","author":"Duhen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wacleche, V.S., Landay, A., Routy, J.P., and Ancuta, P. (2017). The Th17 lineage: From barrier surfaces homeostasis to autoimmunity, cancer, and HIV-1 pathogenesis. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9100303"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13124","article-title":"Biological and clinical significance of T helper 17 cell plasticity","volume":"158","author":"Mazzoni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1002\/cyto.a.22348","article-title":"T helper cells plasticity in inflammation","volume":"85","author":"Cosmi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cytom. Part. A"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2018.11.015","article-title":"A role for Th1-like Th17 cells in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune disorders","volume":"105","author":"Kamali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12977-016-0293-6","article-title":"New insights into the heterogeneity of Th17 subsets contributing to HIV-1 persistence during antiretroviral therapy","volume":"13","author":"Wacleche","year":"2016","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-032414-112056","article-title":"Heterogeneity of Human CD4+ T Cells Against Microbes","volume":"34","author":"Sallusto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2011-301668","article-title":"Secukinumab, a human anti-IL-17A monoclonal antibody, for moderate to severe Crohn\u2019s disease: Unexpected results of a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled trial","volume":"61","author":"Hueber","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1539","article-title":"TGF-\u03b2 and IL-6 drive the production of IL-17 and IL-10 by T cells and restrain TH-17 cell-mediated pathology","volume":"8","author":"McGeachy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09447","article-title":"Generation of pathogenic TH17 cells in the absence of TGF-b signaling","volume":"467","author":"Ghoreschi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2416","article-title":"Induction and molecular signature of pathogenic TH 17 cells","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01112","article-title":"Insight into non-pathogenic Th17 cells in autoimmune diseases","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20040774","article-title":"Chemokine receptor expression identifies pre-T helper (Th)1, pre-Th2, and nonpolarized cells among human CD4+ central memory T cells","volume":"200","author":"Rivino","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2009.07.007","article-title":"Encephalitogenic T cells that stably express both T-bet and ROR\u03b3t consistently produce IFN\u03b3 but have a spectrum of IL-17 profiles","volume":"215","author":"Bronson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1000366","article-title":"Human Th17 Cells Comprise Heterogeneous Subsets Including IFN-\u03b3\u2013Producing Cells with Distinct Properties from the Th1 Lineage","volume":"185","author":"Boniface","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2009.10.012","article-title":"Identification of a novel subset of human circulating memory CD4+ T cells that produce both IL-17A and IL-4","volume":"125","author":"Cosmi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2552","article-title":"TH 17 cell plasticity in Peyer\u2019s patches is responsible for induction of T cell-dependent IgA responses","volume":"14","author":"Hirota","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hetta, H.F. (2017). Role of T Follicular Helper (Tfh) Cells Plasticity in Autoimmune Thyroiditis among Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. Open Access, 6.","DOI":"10.15406\/ghoa.2017.06.00214"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bunte, K., and Beikler, T. (2019). Th17 cells and the IL-23\/IL-17 axis in the pathogenesis of periodontitis and immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20143394"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5948","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.9.5948","article-title":"IL-23 Promotes Maintenance but Not Commitment to the Th17 Lineage","volume":"181","author":"Stritesky","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2008-01-133967","article-title":"Human CD25highFoxp3pos regulatory T cells differentiate into IL-17 producing cells","volume":"112","author":"Koenen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19402","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1008247107","article-title":"Human ROR\u03b3t+ TH17 cells preferentially differentiate from naive FOXP3+Treg in the presence of lineagespecific polarizing factors","volume":"107","author":"Valmori","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6532","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-11-317321","article-title":"Plasticity of human Th17 cells and iTregs is orchestrated by different subsets of myeloid cells","volume":"117","author":"Hoechst","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.23233","article-title":"Roles of T helper 17 cells and interleukin-17 in neuroautoimmune diseases with emphasis on multiple sclerosis and Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome as well as their animal models","volume":"91","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1517\/14728222.2013.843669","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of interleukin-17 in inflammation and autoimmune diseases","volume":"18","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Ther. Targets"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2013.237","article-title":"IL-17 and TNF synergistically modulate cytokine expression while suppressing melanogenesis: Potential relevance to psoriasis","volume":"133","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Invest. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.13140","article-title":"Synergistic effect of interleukin-17 and tumour necrosis factor-\u03b1 on inflammatory response in hepatocytes through interleukin-6-dependent and independent pathways","volume":"193","author":"Beringer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1552","article-title":"Interleukin 17-producing T helper cells and interleukin 17 orchestrate autoreactive germinal center development in autoimmune BXD2 mice","volume":"9","author":"Hsu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.1002\/iub.2295","article-title":"Interleukin-22 and intestinal homeostasis: Protective or destructive?","volume":"72","author":"Shohan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IUBMB Life"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00204","article-title":"IL-26, a cytokine with roles in extracellular DNA-induced inflammation and microbial defense","volume":"10","author":"Larochette","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3211","article-title":"TH17 cells promote microbial killing and innate immune sensing of DNA via interleukin 26","volume":"16","author":"Meller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3610","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2009-05-223768","article-title":"Multiparametric analysis of cytokine-driven human Th17 differentiation reveals a differential regulation of IL-17 and IL-22 production","volume":"114","author":"Volpe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2017.08.008","article-title":"Interleukin-26 is overexpressed in Beh\u00e7et\u2019s disease and enhances Th17 related \u2212cytokines","volume":"190","author":"Kaabachi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020). Coronav\u00edrus Desease (COVID-19) Situation Report, WHO."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30183-5","article-title":"Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China","volume":"395","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30076-X","article-title":"Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2141","article-title":"Interleukin-6 in Covid-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"30","author":"Coomes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"1","article-title":"T-Helper Cell Subset Response Is a Determining Factor in COVID-19 Progression","volume":"11","author":"Arroyo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.10.001","article-title":"Imbalance of Regulatory and Cytotoxic SARS-CoV-2-Reactive CD4+ T Cells in COVID-19","volume":"183","author":"Meckiff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., Kilian, C., Turner, J.E., Bosurgi, L., Roedl, K., Bartsch, P., Gnirck, A.C., Cortesi, F., Schulthei\u00df, C., and Hellmig, M. (2021). Clonal expansion and activation of tissue-resident memory-like Th17 cells expressing GM-CSF in the lungs of severe COVID-19 patients. Sci. Immunol., 6.","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abf6692"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13262","article-title":"T-cell responses and therapies against SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"162","author":"Toor","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"1","article-title":"Marked T cell activation, senescence, exhaustion and skewing towards TH17 in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"11","author":"Meschiari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dysregulated Host Response in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2-Induced Critical Illness","volume":"8","author":"Rauber","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2000554","article-title":"A Case for Targeting Th17 Cells and IL-17A in SARS-CoV-2 Infections","volume":"205","author":"Orlov","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aghbash, P.S., Hemmat, N., Nahand, J.S., Shamekh, A., Memar, M.Y., Babaei, A., and Baghi, H.B. (2021). The role of Th17 cells in viral infections. Int. Immunopharmacol., 91.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2020.107331"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26232","article-title":"The cytokine storm and COVID-19","volume":"93","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.219","article-title":"Raging evolution of a B cell response to a viral infection","volume":"18","author":"Crotty","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2011.38","article-title":"A critical role of IL-17 in modulating the B-cell response during H5N1 influenza virus infection","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005367","article-title":"IL-17A Promotes Pulmonary B-1a Cell Differentiation via Induction of Blimp-1 Expression during Influenza Virus Infection","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7353","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0900657","article-title":"IL-10 deficiency unleashes an influenza-specific Th17 response and enhances survival against high dose challenge","volume":"182","author":"Mckinstry","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1800218","article-title":"Classical Type 1 Dendritic Cells Dominate Priming of Th1 Responses to Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Skin Infection","volume":"202","author":"Harpur","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"1","article-title":"Estradiol Enhances CD4+ T-Cell Anti-Viral Immunity by Priming Vaginal DCs to Induce Th17 Responses via an IL-1-Dependent Pathway","volume":"12","author":"Anipindi","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01234-17","article-title":"Novel Role for Interleukin-17 in Enhancing Type 1 Helper T Cell Immunity in the Female Genital Tract following Mucosal Herpes Simplex Virus 2 Vaccination","volume":"91","author":"Bagri","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/2058738420933099","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus type I\u2013infected disorders alter the balance between Treg and Th17 cells in recurrent herpes labialis patients","volume":"34","author":"Mei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01529-16","article-title":"Interleukin-17A Promotes CD8+ T Cell Cytotoxicity To Facilitate West Nile Virus Clearance","volume":"91","author":"Acharya","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3289","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1303281","article-title":"Intrahepatic Innate Lymphoid Cells Secrete IL-17A and IL-17F That Are Crucial for T Cell Priming in Viral Infection","volume":"192","author":"Jie","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"5914","article-title":"Persistent Chronic Inflammation and Infection by Chikungunya Arthritogenic Alphavirus in Spite of a Robust Host Immune Response","volume":"184","author":"Hoarau","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol. 2010"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2013.08.011","article-title":"Osteoclastogenesis induced by CHIKV-infected fibroblast-like synoviocytes: A possible interplay between synoviocytes and monocytes\/macrophages in CHIKV-induced arthralgia\/arthritis","volume":"177","author":"Phuklia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jis368","article-title":"Interleukin 6, RANKL, and osteoprotegerin expression by chikungunya virus-infected human osteoblasts","volume":"206","author":"Noret","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1202177","article-title":"A Pathogenic Role for CD4 + T Cells during Chikungunya Virus Infection in Mice","volume":"190","author":"Teo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiq042","article-title":"Persistent arthralgia induced by Chikungunya virus infection is associated with interleukin-6 and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor","volume":"203","author":"Chow","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ng, L.F.P., Chow, A., Sun, Y.J., Kwek, D.J.C., Lim, P.L., Dimatatac, F., Ng, L.C., Ooi, E.E., Chao, K.H., and Her, Z. (2009). IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, and RANTES as biomarkers of Chikungunya severity. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0004261"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/S8756-3282(00)00457-9","article-title":"Effect of interleukin-17 on nitric oxide production and osteoclastic bone resorption: Is there dependency on nuclear factor-\u03baB and receptor activator of nuclear factor \u03baB (RANK)\/RANK ligand signaling?","volume":"28","author":"Papapoulos","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1006\/cyto.2000.0681","article-title":"Contribution of interleukin 17 to synovium matrix destruction in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"12","author":"Chabaud","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"1","article-title":"IL-17 in rheumatoid arthritis and precision medicine: From synovitis expression to circulating bioactive levels","volume":"6","author":"Robert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1186\/ar294","article-title":"IL-17 derived from juxta-articular bone and synovium contributes to joint degradation in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"3","author":"Chabaud","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arthritis Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2010.07.004","article-title":"Rheumatoid arthritis progression mediated by activated synovial fibroblasts","volume":"16","author":"Neumann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-012-9855-0","article-title":"IL-17 level in patients with dengue virus infection & its association with severity of illness","volume":"33","author":"Jain","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malavige, G.N., Huang, L.C., Salimi, M., Gomes, L., Jayaratne, S.D., and Ogg, G.S. (2012). Cellular and Cytokine Correlates of Severe Dengue Infection. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050387"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201243229","article-title":"IL-22 modulates IL-17A production and controls inflammation and tissue damage in experimental dengue infection","volume":"43","author":"Guabiraba","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12188","article-title":"Dengue virus infection: Current concepts in immune mechanisms and lessons from murine models","volume":"141","author":"Guabiraba","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez-Vargas, L.A., Hern\u00e1ndez-Flores, K.G., Thomas-Dupont, P., Izaguirre-Hern\u00e1ndez, I.Y., S\u00e1nchez-Marce, E.E., Remes-Ruiz, R., Fonseca-Coronado, S., Hern\u00e1ndez-Romano, P.A., Flores-Collins, M.E., and Vivanco-Cid, H. (2020). Characterization of the IL-17 and CD4+ Th17 Cells in the Clinical Course of Dengue Virus Infections. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12121435"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-015-0445-7","article-title":"Cytokine kinetics of Zika virus-infected patients from acute to reconvalescent phase","volume":"205","author":"Tappe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"1","article-title":"Differential Pattern of Soluble Immune Markers in Asymptomatic Dengue, West Nile and Zika Virus Infections","volume":"9","author":"Rocha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1590\/0074-02760170542","article-title":"Analysis of the immunological biomarker profile during acute zika virus infection reveals the overexpression of CXCL10, a chemokine linked to neuronal damage","volume":"113","author":"Naveca","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17765-5","article-title":"In situ immune response and mechanisms of cell damage in central nervous system of fatal cases microcephaly by Zika virus","volume":"8","author":"Azevedo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1080\/08916930410001713089","article-title":"Myocarditis, microbes and autoimmunity","volume":"37","author":"Whitton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Autoimmunity"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2615","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.766022","article-title":"Viral myocarditis from the perspective of the virus","volume":"119","author":"Yajima","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.12.44","article-title":"Regulatory T cells and Th17 cells in viral infections: Implications for multiple sclerosis and myocarditis","volume":"7","author":"Martinez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199508033330501","article-title":"A Clinical Trial of Immunosuppressive Therapy for Myocarditis","volume":"333","author":"Mason","year":"1995","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-009-9355-z","article-title":"Th17 cells facilitate the humoral immune response in patients with acute viral myocarditis","volume":"30","author":"Yuan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4004","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1001718","article-title":"Th17 Cells Contribute to Viral Replication in Coxsackievirus B3-Induced Acute Viral Myocarditis","volume":"185","author":"Yuan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2009.11.010","article-title":"Neutralization of IL-17 inhibits the production of anti-ANT autoantibodies in CVB3-induced acute viral myocarditis","volume":"10","author":"Yuan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2019.116838","article-title":"IL-10-producing B cells attenuate cardiac inflammation by regulating Th1 and Th17 cells in acute viral myocarditis induced by coxsackie virus B3","volume":"235","author":"Wei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2019.104025","article-title":"PGE2 ameliorated viral myocarditis development and promoted IL-10-producing regulatory B cell expansion via MAPKs\/AKT-AP1 axis or AhR signaling","volume":"347","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-017-0681-7","article-title":"CD80 Regulates Th17 Cell Differentiation in Coxsackie Virus B3-Induced Acute Myocarditis","volume":"41","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2018.1482179","article-title":"The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway ameliorates acute viral myocarditis in mice by regulating cd4 + t cell differentiation","volume":"9","author":"Xiaohong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3871","article-title":"Immunopathology of multiple sclerosis","volume":"15","author":"Dendrou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70264-9","article-title":"Clinical trials in progressive multiple sclerosis: Lessons learned and future perspectives","volume":"14","author":"Ontaneda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2017.04.006","article-title":"The Enigmatic Role of Viruses in Multiple Sclerosis: Molecular Mimicry or Disturbed Immune Surveillance?","volume":"38","author":"Geginat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI21357","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis","volume":"113","author":"Hafler","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0031-1287656","article-title":"Evidence for viral etiology of multiple sclerosis","volume":"31","author":"Tselis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2008.08.002","article-title":"The intrathecal, polyspecific antiviral immune response: Specific for MS or a general marker of CNS autoimmunity?","volume":"280","author":"Jarius","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarlinton, R.E., Martynova, E., Rizvanov, A.A., Khaiboullina, S., and Verma, S. (2020). Role of Viruses in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12060643"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115601","article-title":"A central role for central tolerance","volume":"24","author":"Kyewski","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(95)90348-8","article-title":"Molecular mimicry in T cell-mediated autoimmunity: Viral peptides activate human T cell clones specific for myelin basic protein","volume":"80","author":"Wucherpfennig","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20072397","article-title":"EBNA1-specific T cells from patients with multiple sclerosis cross react with myelin antigens and co-produce IFN-\u03b3 and IL-2","volume":"205","author":"Roberts","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2010.04143.x","article-title":"T cells in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"162","author":"Fletcher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1006\/meth.1996.0123","article-title":"Theiler\u2019s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelination: A model for human multiple sclerosis","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"1996","journal-title":"Methods A Companion Methods Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20082030","article-title":"Th17 cells enhance viral persistence and inhibit T cell cytotoxicity in a model of chronic virus infection","volume":"206","author":"Hou","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6873","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.96.12.6873","article-title":"CCR5+ and CXCR3+ T cells are increased in multiple sclerosis and their ligands MIP-1\u03b1 and IP-10 are expressed in demyelinating brain lesions","volume":"96","author":"Balashov","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-9-77","article-title":"Role of C-C chemokine receptor type 7 and its ligands during neuroinflammation","volume":"9","author":"Noor","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.09-141978","article-title":"Cellular mechanisms of IL-17-induced blood-brain barrier disruption","volume":"24","author":"Huppert","year":"2010","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0286-5","article-title":"IL-17A brings new recruits to EAE","volume":"20","author":"Minton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5978","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00315-09","article-title":"Interleukin-12 (IL-12), but Not IL-23, Deficiency Ameliorates Viral Encephalitis without Affecting Viral Control","volume":"83","author":"Kapil","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21748","article-title":"Preferential recruitment of interferon-\u03b3-expressing TH17 cells in multiple sclerosis","volume":"66","author":"Kebir","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2027","article-title":"ROR\u03b33t drives production of the cytokine GM-CSF in helper T cells, which is essential for the effector phase of autoimmune neuroinflammation","volume":"12","author":"Codarri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noster, R., Riedel, R., Mashreghi, M.F., Radbruch, H., Harms, L., Haftmann, C., Chang, H.D., Radbruch, A., and Zielinski, C.E. (2014). IL-17 and GM-CSF expression are antagonistically regulated by human T helper cells. Sci. Transl. Med., 6.","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3008706"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3678","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1102422","article-title":"Regulatory T Cells Selectively Preserve Immune Privilege of Self-Antigens during Viral Central Nervous System Infection","volume":"188","author":"Firner","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2013.10.009","article-title":"The plasticity of human Treg and Th17 cells and its role in autoimmunity","volume":"25","author":"Kleinewietfeld","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.11.045","article-title":"Recognition of viral and self-antigens by TH1 and TH1\/TH17 central memory cells in patients with multiple sclerosis reveals distinct roles in immune surveillance and relapses","volume":"140","author":"Paroni","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1177\/135245859900500206","article-title":"Interleukin-17 mRNA expression in blood and CSF mononuclear cells is augmented in multiple sclerosis","volume":"5","author":"Matusevicius","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2567.2008.02837.x","article-title":"T helper cell type 1 (Th1), Th2 and Th17 responses to myelin basic protein and disease activity in multiple sclerosis","volume":"125","author":"Hedegaard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2017.03.008","article-title":"CCR6+ Th cells in the cerebrospinal fluid of persons with multiple sclerosis are dominated by pathogenic non-classic Th1 cells and GM-CSF-only-secreting Th cells","volume":"64","author":"Restorick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awy069","article-title":"T helper 17.1 cells associate with multiple sclerosis disease activity: Perspectives for early intervention","volume":"141","author":"Janssen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3083.2011.02536.x","article-title":"Th17 Cell, the new player of neuroinflammatory process in multiple sclerosis","volume":"74","author":"Mirshafiey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1651","article-title":"Human TH17 lymphocytes promote blood-brain barrier disruption and central nervous system inflammation","volume":"13","author":"Kebir","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2011.06.007","article-title":"T helper 17 cell heterogeneity and pathogenicity in autoimmune disease","volume":"32","author":"Ghoreschi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/5\/1159\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:59:09Z","timestamp":1760162349000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/5\/1159"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]},"references-count":160,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["cells10051159"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells10051159","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]}}}