{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T06:48:08Z","timestamp":1791874088175,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,5]],"date-time":"2021-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622851200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001807","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado de S\u00e3o Paulo","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018\/22033-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018\/22033-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001807","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["302449\/2018-3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["302449\/2018-3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although crocodilians have attracted enormous attention in other research fields, from the cytogenetic point of view, this group remains understudied. Here, we analyzed the karyotypes of eight species formally described from the Alligatoridae family using differential staining, fluorescence in situ hybridization with rDNA and repetitive motifs as a probe, whole chromosome painting (WCP), and comparative genome hybridization. All Caimaninae species have a diploid chromosome number (2n) 42 and karyotypes dominated by acrocentric chromosomes, in contrast to both species of Alligatorinae, which have 2n = 32 and karyotypes that are predominantly metacentric, suggesting fusion\/fission rearrangements. Our WCP results supported this scenario by revealing the homeology of the largest metacentric pair present in both Alligator spp. with two smaller pairs of acrocentrics in Caimaninae species. The clusters of 18S rDNA were found on one chromosome pair in all species, except for Paleosuchus spp., which possessed three chromosome pairs bearing these sites. Similarly, comparative genomic hybridization demonstrated an advanced stage of sequence divergence among the caiman genomes, with Paleosuchus standing out as the most divergent. Thus, although Alligatoridae exhibited rather low species diversity and some level of karyotype stasis, their genomic content indicates that they are not as conserved as previously thought. These new data deepen the discussion of cytotaxonomy in this family.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10061397","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,6]],"date-time":"2021-06-06T23:59:55Z","timestamp":1623023995000},"page":"1397","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Revisiting the Karyotypes of Alligators and Caimans (Crocodylia, Alligatoridae) after a Half-Century Delay: Bridging the Gap in the Chromosomal Evolution of Reptiles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8638-0515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vanessa C. S.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Citogen\u00e9tica de Peixes, Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica e Evolu\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Carlos, S\u00e3o Carlos 13565-905, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7193-8918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Altmanov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, 12844 Prague, Czech Republic"},{"name":"Laboratory of Fish Genetics, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, 27721 Lib\u011bchov, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8172-0725","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrik F.","family":"Viana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Gen\u00e9tica Animal, Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amaz\u00f4nia, Manaus 69083-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4763-1347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tariq","family":"Ezaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luiz A. C.","family":"Bertollo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Citogen\u00e9tica de Peixes, Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica e Evolu\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Carlos, S\u00e3o Carlos 13565-905, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petr","family":"R\u00e1b","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Fish Genetics, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, 27721 Lib\u011bchov, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1672-3054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Liehr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Human Genetics, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Al-Rikabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Human Genetics, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eliana","family":"Feldberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Gen\u00e9tica Animal, Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amaz\u00f4nia, Manaus 69083-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Terumi","family":"Hatanaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Citogen\u00e9tica de Peixes, Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica e Evolu\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Carlos, S\u00e3o Carlos 13565-905, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sebastian","family":"Scholz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"An der Nachtweide 16, 60433 Frankfurt, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"Meurer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alfred Nobel Strasse 1e, 55411 Bingen am Rhein, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4340-1464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelo","family":"de Bello Cioffi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Citogen\u00e9tica de Peixes, Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica e Evolu\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Carlos, S\u00e3o Carlos 13565-905, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Grigg, G., Seebacher, F., and Franklin, C.E. (2001). Crocodilian Biology and Evolution, Surrey Beatty. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.earth.31.100901.141308","article-title":"Phylogenetic approaches toward crocodylian history","volume":"31","author":"Brochu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Earth and Planet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140385","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.140385","article-title":"Diversification events and the effects of mass extinction on Crocodyliformes evolutionary history","volume":"2","author":"Bronzati","year":"2015","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210069","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2021.0069","article-title":"Ecological opportunity and the rise and fall of crocodylomorph evolutionary innovation","volume":"288","author":"Stubbs","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025736","article-title":"The complete mitochondrial genome of Alligator mississippiensis and the separation between recent Archosauria (birds and crocodiles)","volume":"14","author":"Janke","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msi075","article-title":"Sister group relationship of turtles to the bird-crocodilian clade revealed by nuclear DNA-coded proteins","volume":"22","author":"Iwabe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254449","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1254449","article-title":"Three crocodilian genomes reveal ancestral patterns of evolution among archosaurs","volume":"346","author":"Green","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1093\/zoolinnean\/zlaa074","article-title":"Near-complete phylogeny of extant Crocodylia (Reptilia) using mitogenome-based data","volume":"191","author":"Pan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Zool. J. Linn. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"3","article-title":"Species Accounts","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Ross","year":"1998","journal-title":"Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Revised Action Plan for Crocodiles"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"387","article-title":"Orden Crocodylia","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Mittermeier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Conservaci\u00f3n Internacional. Serie de Gu\u00edas Tropicales de Campo N\u00b0 6. Las Tortugas y l\u00f3s Crocodilianos de los Pa\u00edses Andinos del Tr\u00f3pico"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2011.03.026","article-title":"A phylogenetic hypothesis for Crocodylus (Crocodylia) based on mitochondrial DNA: Evidence for a trans-Atlantic voyage from Africa to the New World","volume":"60","author":"Meredith","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Phylogenet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3285","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.2011.01373.x","article-title":"A time-calibrated species tree of Crocodylia reveals a recent radiation of the true crocodiles","volume":"65","author":"Oaks","year":"2011","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2006.01.012","article-title":"Are crocodiles really monophyletic?\u2014Evidence for subdivisions from sequence and morphological data","volume":"39","author":"McAliley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Phylogenet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-007-9030-4","article-title":"Global diversity of crocodiles (Crocodilia, Reptilia) in freshwater","volume":"595","author":"Martin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4199","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2011.05245.x","article-title":"An ancient icon reveals new mysteries: Mummy DNA resurrects a cryptic species within the Nile crocodile","volume":"20","author":"Hekkala","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20132483","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2013.2483","article-title":"Rigorous approaches to species delimitation have significant implications for African crocodilian systematics and conservation","volume":"281","author":"Shirley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.5808\/GI.2015.13.4.102","article-title":"Role of chromosome changes in Crocodylus evolution and diversity","volume":"13","author":"Srikulnath","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genom. Inform."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Barreiros, J.P. (2016). Crocodylia: Uma Longa Hist\u00f3ria de Sucesso Evolutivo, Atl\u00e2ntida Revista de Cultura. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-019-04709-7","article-title":"Detecting population structure of Paleosuchus trigonatus (Alligatoridae: Caimaninae) through microsatellites markers developed by next generation sequencing","volume":"46","author":"Muniz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Uetz, P., Freed, P., Aguilar, R., and Ho\u0161ek, J. (2020, August 31). The Reptile Database. Available online: http:\/\/www.reptile-database.org."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1111\/geb.12929","article-title":"Trait-based range expansion aided in the global radiation of Crocodylidae","volume":"28","author":"Nicolai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.11646\/zootaxa.4504.2.1","article-title":"Systematic revision of the living African slender-snouted crocodiles (Mecistops Gray, 1844)","volume":"4504","author":"Shirley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Zootaxa"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"E.T21981A2780499","article-title":"Tomistoma\u00a0schlegelii","volume":"2014","author":"Bezuijen","year":"2014","journal-title":"IUCN Red List Threat. Species"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20181071","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2018.1071","article-title":"Tip-dating and homoplasy: Reconciling the shallow molecular divergences of modern gharials with their long fossil record","volume":"285","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/s10592-017-1035-6","article-title":"Delimitation of evolutionary units in Cuvier\u00b4s dwarf caiman, Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier, 1807): Insights from conservation of a broadly distributes species","volume":"19","author":"Muniz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Conserv. Genet."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6580","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.6580","article-title":"Evidence of cryptic lineages within a small South American crocodilian: The Schneider\u00b4s dwarf caiman Paleosuchus trigonatus (Alligatoridae: Caimaninae)","volume":"7","author":"Bittencourt","year":"2019","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"E.T46584A3009688","article-title":"Caiman\u00a0crocodilus","volume":"2019","author":"Velasco","year":"2019","journal-title":"IUCN Red List Threat. Species"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Jiang, H., and Wu, X. (2018). Alligator\u00a0sinensis. IUCN Red List Threat. Species, 2018."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3207(01)00128-8","article-title":"Wild populations of the Chinese alligator approach extinction","volume":"103","author":"Thorbjarnarson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icn049","article-title":"Trends in the evolution of reptilian chromosomes","volume":"48","author":"Olmo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Integr. Comp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1159\/000495974","article-title":"Understanding the evolution of reptile chromosomes through applications of combined cytogenetics and genomics approaches","volume":"157","author":"Deakin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2000050","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.202000050","article-title":"Evolution of sex determination in amniotes: Did stress and sequential hermaphroditism produce environmental determination?","volume":"42","author":"Rovatsos","year":"2020","journal-title":"BioEssays"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-005-1010-9","article-title":"The dragon lizard Pogona vitticeps has ZZ\/ZW micro-sex chromosomes","volume":"13","author":"Ezaz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-006-1029-6","article-title":"An XX\/XY sex michrocromosome system in a freshwater turtle, Chelodina longicollis (Testudines: Chelidae) with genetic sex determination","volume":"14","author":"Ezaz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1159\/000103169","article-title":"Different origins of bird and reptile sex chromosomes inferred from comparative mapping of chicken Z-linked genes","volume":"117","author":"Kawai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-008-1228-4","article-title":"An XX\/XY heteromorphic sex chromosome system in the Australian chelid turtle Emydura macquarii: A new piece in the puzzle of sex chromosome evolution in turtles","volume":"16","author":"Martinez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-013-9343-2","article-title":"A ZZ\/ZW microchromosome system in the spiny softshell turtle, Apalone spinifera, reveals an intriguing sex chromosome conservation in Trionychidae","volume":"21","author":"Badenhorst","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-014-9430-z","article-title":"Sex determination in Madagascar geckos of the genus Paroedura (Squamata: Gekkonidae) are differentiated sex chromosomes indeed so evolutionary stable?","volume":"22","author":"Rovatsos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1159\/000366172","article-title":"Non-homologous sex chromosomes in two geckos (Gekkonidae: Gekkota) with female heterogamety","volume":"143","author":"Matsubara","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s00412-016-0576-7","article-title":"Discovery of the youngest sex chromosomes reveals first case of convergent co-option of ancestral autosomes in turtles","volume":"126","author":"Montiel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viana, P.F., Ezaz, T., Cioffi, M.B., Almeida, B.J., and Feldberg, E. (2019). Evolutionary Insights of the ZW Sex Chromosomes in Snakes: A New Chapter Added by the Amazonian Puffing Snakes of the Genus Spilotes. Genes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes10040288"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12499","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69349-5","article-title":"Landscape of snake\u2019 sex chromosomes evolution spanning 85 MYR reveals ancestry of sequences despite distinct evolutionary trajectories","volume":"10","author":"Viana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1159\/000129941","article-title":"The somatic chromosomes of five crocodilian species","volume":"6","author":"Cohen","year":"1967","journal-title":"Cytogenetics"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1159\/000130080","article-title":"The chromosomes of the Order Crocodilia","volume":"9","author":"Cohen","year":"1970","journal-title":"Cytogenetics"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00122186","article-title":"Chromosomal repatterning in crocodiles: C, G, and N-banding and the in situ hybridization of 18S and 26S rRNA cistrons","volume":"70","author":"King","year":"1986","journal-title":"Genetica"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"165","article-title":"Karyotypic analysis and chromosome biometry of cell cultures of the yellow throated alligator (Caiman latirostris DAUDIN)","volume":"17","author":"Lui","year":"1994","journal-title":"Rev. Brasil. Genet."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00337388","article-title":"The karyotype of Alligator mississippiensis, and chromosomal mapping of the ZFY\/X homologue, Zfc","volume":"103","author":"Valleley","year":"1994","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-008-1263-1","article-title":"Molecular structures of centromeric heterochromatin and karyotypic evolution in the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) (Crocodylidae, Crocodylia)","volume":"16","author":"Kawagoshi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uno, Y., Nishida, C., Tarui, H., Ishishita, S., Takagi, C., Nishimura, O., Ishijima, J., Ota, H., Kosaka, A., and Matsubara, K. (2012). Inference of the protokaryotypes of amniotes and tetrapods and the evolutionary processes of microchromosomes from comparative gene mapping. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0053027"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1159\/000338111","article-title":"Extensive homology of chicken macrochromosomes in the karyotypes of Trachemys scripta elegans and Crocodylus niloticus revealed by chromosome painting despite long divergence times","volume":"136","author":"Kasai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2020.111835","article-title":"Looking for genetic effects of polluted anthropized environments on Caiman crocodilus crocodilus (Reptilia, Crocodylia): A comparative genotoxic and chromosomal analysis","volume":"209","author":"Oliveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Olmo, E., and Signorino, G.G. (2020, August 24). Chromorep: A Reptile Chromosomes Database. Available online: http:\/\/chromorep.univpm.it\/?q=node\/13."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20180331","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-4685-gmb-2018-0331","article-title":"The distribution of 45S rDNA sites in bird suggests multiple evolutionary histories","volume":"43","author":"Degrandi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1080\/00087114.2003.10589361","article-title":"Comparative cytogenetic analysis of the South American alligators Caiman latirostris and Caiman yacare (Reptilia, Alligatoridae) from Argentina","volume":"56","author":"Amavet","year":"2003","journal-title":"Caryologia"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"65","article-title":"Temperature dependent sex determination in reptiles","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Deeming","year":"2004","journal-title":"Reptilian Incubation: Environment & Behaviour"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.13037","article-title":"The sex-determination pattern in crocodilians: A systematic review of three decades of research","volume":"88","author":"Charruau","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s13237-016-0174-3","article-title":"An optimized protocol for obtaining mitotic chromosomes from cultured reptilian lymphocytes","volume":"59","author":"Viana","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleus"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1159\/000447340","article-title":"First description of the karyotype and sex chromosomes in the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis)","volume":"148","author":"Rovatsos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4827(72)90558-7","article-title":"A simple technique for demonstrating centromeric heterochromatin","volume":"75","author":"Sumner","year":"1972","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00292043","article-title":"Chromosome banding in Amphibia. IV. Differentiation of GC and AT-rich regions in Anura","volume":"77","author":"Schmid","year":"1980","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cioffi, M.B., Martins, C., and Bertollo, L.A.C. (2009). Comparative chromosome mapping of repetitive sequences. Implications for genomic evolution in the fish, Hoplias malabaricus. BMC Genet., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2156-10-34"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4780","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/19.17.4780","article-title":"Improved telomere detection using a telomere repeat probe (TTAGGG)n generated by PCR","volume":"19","author":"Ijdo","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1139\/G08-024","article-title":"Microsatellite accumulation on the Y chromosome in Silene latifolia","volume":"51","author":"Kubat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Genome"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"429","article-title":"Fish-FISH: Molecular Cytogenetics in Fish Species","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Liehr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)\u2014Application Guide"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"81","article-title":"FISH-microdissection","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Liehr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)\u2014Application Guide"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Sambrook, J., and Russell, D.W. (2001). Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1139\/g97-020","article-title":"A rapid procedure for the isolation of C0t-1 DNA from plants","volume":"40","author":"Zwick","year":"1997","journal-title":"Genome"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozouf-Costaz, C., Pisano, E., Foresti, F., and Toledo, L.F.A. (2015). Characterization of fish genomes by GISH and CGH. Fish Cytogenetic Techniques Ray-Fin Fishes Chondrichthyans, CCR Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b18534"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1601-5223.1964.tb01953.x","article-title":"Nomenclature for centromeric position on chromosomes","volume":"52","author":"Levan","year":"1964","journal-title":"Hereditas"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.2307\/2406047","article-title":"Sex chromosomes in Amniota","volume":"11","author":"Matthey","year":"1957","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"33","article-title":"Sex Chromosomes and Sex-linked Genes","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Labhart","year":"1967","journal-title":"Monographs on Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1","article-title":"Order: CROCODILIA, Suborder: EUSUCHIA, Family: CROCODYLIDAE, Caiman crocodilus (Linnaeus)","volume":"1","year":"1971","journal-title":"Folio R-15"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"1","article-title":"Reptilia","volume":"Volume 4","author":"John","year":"1986","journal-title":"Animal Cytogenetics. Chordata 3"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Amavet, P., Siroski, P., Donayo, P., and Medina, M. (2000, January 17\u201320). Karyotype of Caiman latirostris and Caiman yacare (Reptilia, Alligatoridae). Proceedings of the 15th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, Varadero, Cuba."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13410","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0811087106","article-title":"Nine exceptional radiations plus high turnover explain species diversity in jawed vertebrates","volume":"106","author":"Alfaro","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11631","article-title":"The global diversity of birds in space and time","volume":"491","author":"Jetz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pyron, R.A., Burbrink, F.T., and Wiens, J.J. (2013). A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards and snakes. BMC Evol. Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2148-13-93"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bista, B., and Valenzuela, N. (2020). Turtle insights into the evolution of the reptilian karyotype and the genomic architecture of sex determination. Genes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes11040416"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rovatsos, M., Altmanov\u00e1, M., Johnson Pokorn\u00e1, M., Velensk\u00fd, P., Baca, A.S., and Kratochv\u00edl, L. (2017). Evolution of karyotypes in chameleons. Genes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes8120382"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.20286","article-title":"Four well-constrained calibration points from the vertebrate fossil record for molecular clock estimates","volume":"27","author":"Reisz","year":"2005","journal-title":"BioEssays"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/S0027-5107(98)00116-X","article-title":"Telomere length and telomere-centromere relationships?","volume":"404","author":"Slijepcevic","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.2307\/1446980","article-title":"Evolution and phylogenetic significance of ribosomal gene location in chromosomes of squamate reptiles","volume":"1994","author":"Porter","year":"1994","journal-title":"Copeia"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s00412-017-0651-8","article-title":"Evolutionary trends in animal ribosomal DNA loci: Introduction to a new online database","volume":"127","author":"Garcia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.2307\/1565003","article-title":"Variation in the nucleolus organizer region among new world snakes","volume":"29","author":"Camper","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Herpetol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-010-9152-9","article-title":"Non-homologous sex chromosomes of birds and snakes share repetitive sequences","volume":"18","author":"Patel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rovatsos, M., Altmanov\u00e1, M., Augstenov\u00e1, B., Mazzoleni, S., Velensk\u00fd, P., and Kratochv\u00edl, L. (2019). ZZ\/ZW sex determination with multiple neo-sex chromosomes is common in Madagascan chameleons of the genus Furcifer (Reptilia: Chamaeleonidae). Genes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes10121020"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4276","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-61116-w","article-title":"Sex is determined by XX\/XY sex chromosomes in Australasian side-necked turtles (Testudines: Chelidae)","volume":"10","author":"Mazzoleni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msaa253","article-title":"Microchromosomes exhibit distinct features of vertebrate chromosome structure and function with underappreciated ramifications for genome evolution","volume":"38","author":"Perry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1159\/000063018","article-title":"Origin and evolution of avian microchromosomes","volume":"96","author":"Burt","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1159\/000078014","article-title":"Chromosomes of tuatara, Sphenodon, a chromosome heteromorphism and an archaic reptilian karyotype","volume":"105","author":"Norris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1159\/000132457","article-title":"An extended chicken karyotype, including the NOR chromosome","volume":"45","author":"Auer","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Cell Genet."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.8.6.621","article-title":"Chicken microchromosomes are hyperacetylated, early replicating, and gene rich","volume":"8","author":"McQueen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2052.2000.00565.x","article-title":"Differences in gene density on chicken macrochromosomes and microchromosomes","volume":"31","author":"Smith","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anim. Genet."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1012436900788","article-title":"Compositional mapping of chicken chromosomes and identification of the gene-richest regions","volume":"9","author":"Andreozzi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-006-1035-8","article-title":"cDNA-based gene mapping and GC3 profiling in the soft-shelled turtle suggest a chromosomal size-dependent GC bias shared by sauropsids","volume":"14","author":"Kuraku","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chromosome Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s10709-005-8008-2","article-title":"Rate of chromosome changes and speciation in reptiles","volume":"125","author":"Olmo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Genetica"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2767","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0606204104","article-title":"Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome","volume":"104","author":"Shedlock","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10390","article-title":"The genome of the green anole lizard and a comparative analysis with birds and mammals","volume":"477","author":"Grabherr","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1139\/gen-2015-0124","article-title":"Microsatellite landscape evolutionary dynamics across 450 million years of vertebrate genome evolution","volume":"59","author":"Adams","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1616702114","article-title":"Dynamics of genome size evolution in birds and mammals","volume":"114","author":"Kapusta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1002\/humu.22542","article-title":"Gene conversion violates the stepwise mutation model for microsatellites in Y-chromosomal palindromic repeats","volume":"35","author":"Balaresque","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Mutat."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-313X.1999.00392.x","article-title":"Intimate association of microsatellite repeats with retrotransposons and other dispersed repetitive elements in barley","volume":"17","author":"Ramsay","year":"1999","journal-title":"Plant. J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2640","article-title":"The impact of retrotransposon on human genome evolution","volume":"10","author":"Cordaux","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-genom-082509-141646","article-title":"Genome evolution in reptilia, the sister group of mammals","volume":"11","author":"Janes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Genom. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1159\/000505889","article-title":"First record on sex chromosomes in a species of the family Cynodontidae: Cynodon gibbus (Agassiz, 1829)","volume":"160","author":"Figliuolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cytogenet Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2774","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05279-1","article-title":"Squamate reptiles challenge paradigms of genomic repeat element evolution set by birds and mammals","volume":"9","author":"Pasquesi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, S.F., Singchat, W., Jehangir, M., Suntronpong, A., Panthum, T., Malaivijitnond, M., and Srikulnath, K. (2020). Dark matter of primate genomes: Satellite DNA repeats and their evolutionary dynamics. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9122714"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8137.2007.02121.x","article-title":"Sequence of events leading to near-complete genome turnover in allopolyploid Nicotiana within five million years","volume":"175","author":"Lim","year":"2007","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s13353-016-0369-y","article-title":"Similarities and differences in the nuclear genome organization within Pooideae species revealed by comparative genomic in situ hybridization (GISH)","volume":"58","author":"Majka","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Genet."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-38617-4","article-title":"Emerging patterns of genome organization in Notopteridae species (Teleostei, Osteoglossiformes) as revealed by Zoo-FISH and Comparative Genomic Hybridization (CGH)","volume":"9","author":"Barby","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1093\/jhered\/esh069","article-title":"Genetic linkage mapping of allozyme loci in even- and odd-year pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha)","volume":"95","author":"Matsuoka","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Hered."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1105\/tpc.110.074526","article-title":"Fast diploidization in close mesopolyploid relatives of Arabidopsis","volume":"22","author":"Joly","year":"2010","journal-title":"Plant. Cell"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1086\/678087","article-title":"Habit and ecology of the petriellales, an unusual group of seed plants from the Triassic of Gondwana","volume":"175","author":"Bomfleur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Plant. Sci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35990","DOI":"10.1038\/srep35990","article-title":"Phylogenetic and functional potential links pH and N2O emission in pasture soils","volume":"6","author":"Samad","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Green, D.M., and Sessions, S.K. (1991). Evolutionary cytogenetics of Bolitoglossine salamanders (Family Plethodontidae). Amphibian Cytogenetics and Evolution, San Diego Academic Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-297880-7.50009-3"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1080\/11250000409356641","article-title":"Evidence for a remarkable stasis of chromosome evolution in Malagasy tree-frogs (Boophis: Mantellidae)","volume":"2","author":"Aprea","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ital. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2009.12.004","article-title":"Evolutionary stasis: The stable chromosome of birds","volume":"25","author":"Ellegren","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pisano, E., Ozouf-Costaz, C., Foresti, F., and Kapoor, B.G. (2007). Chromosomal changes and stasis in marine fish groups. Fish Cytogenetics, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b10746"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaffaroglu, M., Majt\u00e1nov\u00e1, Z., Symonov\u00e1, R., Pelik\u00e1nov\u00e1, S., Unal, S., Lajbner, Z., and R\u00e1b, P. (2020). Present and future salmonid cytogenetics. Genes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes11121462"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barby, F.F., R\u00e1b, P., Lavou\u00e9, S., Ezaz, T., Bertollo, L.A.C., Kilian, A., Maruyama, S.R., de Oliveira, E.A., Artoni, R.A., and Santos, M.H. (2018). From chromosomes to genome: Insights into the evolutionary relationships and biogeography of Old World knifefishes (Notopteridae; Osteoglossiformes). Genes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes9060306"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5193(83)90335-1","article-title":"On the problem of stasis in organismal evolution","volume":"101","author":"Wake","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-020-01561-5","article-title":"Environmental drivers of body size evolution in crocodile-line archosaurs","volume":"4","author":"Stockdale","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"White, M.J.D. (1973). Animal Cytology and Evolution, Cambridge University Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"Atchley, W.R., and Woodruff, D.S. (1981). Chromosome change and speciation in lizards. Essays on Evolution and Speciation in Honour of M. J. D., Cambridge University Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"White, M.J.D. (1978). Modes of Speciation, W.R. Freeman and Company. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"King, M. (1995). Species Evolution: The Role of Chromosome Change, Cambridge University Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2017.00010","article-title":"Chromosomal speciation in the genomics era: Disentangling phylogenetic evolution of rock-wallabies","volume":"8","author":"Potter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Genet."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/6\/1397\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:11:12Z","timestamp":1760163072000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/10\/6\/1397"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,5]]},"references-count":127,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["cells10061397"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells10061397","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,5]]}}}