{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T02:14:02Z","timestamp":1790734442455,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,8]],"date-time":"2021-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625702400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"national institute of allergy and infectious diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AI128925"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI128925"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000065","name":"National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NS045585"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS045585"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000065","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Phagocytosis is one of the most important physiological functions of the glia directed at maintaining a healthy, homeostatic environment in the brain. Under a homeostatic environment, the phagocytic activities of astrocytes and microglia are tightly coordinated in time and space. In neurodegenerative diseases, both microglia and astrocytes contribute to neuroinflammation and disease pathogenesis, however, whether their phagocytic activities are up- or downregulated in reactive states is not known. To address this question, this current study isolated microglia and astrocytes from C57BL\/6J mice infected with prions and tested their phagocytic activities in live-cell imaging assays that used synaptosomes and myelin debris as substrates. The phagocytic uptake by the reactive microglia was found to be significantly upregulated, whereas that of the reactive astrocytes was strongly downregulated. The up- and downregulation of phagocytosis by the two cell types were observed irrespective of whether disease-associated synaptosomes, normal synaptosomes, or myelin debris were used in the assays, indicating that dysregulations are dictated by cell reactive states, not substrates. Analysis of gene expression confirmed dysregulation of phagocytic functions in both cell types. Immunostaining of animal brains infected with prions revealed that at the terminal stage of disease, neuronal cell bodies were subject to engulfment by reactive microglia. This study suggests that imbalance in the phagocytic activities of the reactive microglia and astrocytes, which are dysregulated in opposite directions, is likely to lead to excessive microglia-mediated neuronal death on the one hand, and the inability of astrocytes to clear cell debris on the other hand, contributing to the neurotoxic effects of glia as a whole.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10071728","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,8]],"date-time":"2021-07-08T10:42:17Z","timestamp":1625740937000},"page":"1728","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Phagocytic Activities of Reactive Microglia and Astrocytes Associated with Prion Diseases Are Dysregulated in Opposite Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Anshuman","family":"Sinha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rajesh","family":"Kushwaha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kara","family":"Molesworth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olga","family":"Mychko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natallia","family":"Makarava","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2821-0942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ilia V.","family":"Baskakov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12922","article-title":"Inflammation in CNS neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"154","author":"Stephenson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e104783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2020.104783","article-title":"Region-specific glial homeostatic signature in prion diseases is replaced by a uniform neuroinflammation signature, common for brain regions and prion strains with different cell tropism","volume":"137","author":"Makarava","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurobiol. 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