{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T06:44:38Z","timestamp":1789541078360,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":341,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,21]],"date-time":"2021-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MH106392"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MH106392"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HD043680"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HD043680"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DA013137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DA013137"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000065","name":"National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NS100624"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS100624"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000065","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Individuals living with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) are often plagued by debilitating neurocognitive impairments and affective alterations;the pathophysiology underlying these deficits likely includes dopaminergic system dysfunction. The present review utilized four interrelated aims to critically examine the evidence for dopaminergic alterations following HIV-1 viral protein exposure. First, basal dopamine (DA) values are dependent upon both brain region andexperimental approach (i.e., high-performance liquid chromatography, microdialysis or fast-scan cyclic voltammetry). Second, neurochemical measurements overwhelmingly support decreased DA concentrations following chronic HIV-1 viral protein exposure. Neurocognitive impairments, including alterations in pre-attentive processes and attention, as well as apathetic behaviors, provide an additional line of evidence for dopaminergic deficits in HIV-1. Third, to date, there is no compelling evidence that combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), the primary treatment regimen for HIV-1 seropositive individuals, has any direct pharmacological action on the dopaminergic system. Fourth, the infection of microglia by HIV-1 viral proteins may mechanistically underlie the dopamine deficit observed following chronic HIV-1 viral protein exposure. An inclusive and critical evaluation of the literature, therefore, supports the fundamental conclusion that long-term HIV-1 viral protein exposure leads to a decreased dopaminergic state, which continues to persist despite the advent of cART. Thus, effective treatment of HIV-1-associated apathy\/depression and neurocognitive impairments must focus on strategies for rectifying decreases in dopamine function.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10082158","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,22]],"date-time":"2021-08-22T21:42:12Z","timestamp":1629668532000},"page":"2158","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["HIV-Associated Apathy\/Depression and Neurocognitive Impairments Reflect Persistent Dopamine Deficits"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Kristen A.","family":"McLaurin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Harris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Madormo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven B.","family":"Harrod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles F.","family":"Mactutus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3908-8313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosemarie M.","family":"Booze","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410140404","article-title":"Neurological complications of acquired immune deficiency syndrome: Analysis of 50 patients","volume":"14","author":"Snider","year":"1983","journal-title":"Ann. 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