{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T08:47:37Z","timestamp":1790758057052,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":158,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]],"date-time":"2021-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631664000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ischemic stroke is still among the leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Despite intensive advancements in medical sciences, the clinical options to treat ischemic stroke are limited to thrombectomy and thrombolysis using tissue plasminogen activator within a narrow time window after stroke. Current state of the art knowledge reveals the critical role of local and systemic inflammation after stroke that can be triggered by interactions taking place at the brain and immune system interface. Here, we discuss different cellular and molecular mechanisms through which brain\u2013immune interactions can take place. Moreover, we discuss the evidence how the brain influence immune system through the release of brain derived antigens, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), cytokines, chemokines, upregulated adhesion molecules, through infiltration, activation and polarization of immune cells in the CNS. Furthermore, the emerging concept of stemness-induced cellular immunity in the context of neurodevelopment and brain disease, focusing on ischemic implications, is discussed. Finally, we discuss current evidence on brain\u2013immune system interaction through the autonomic nervous system after ischemic stroke. All of these mechanisms represent potential pharmacological targets and promising future research directions for clinically relevant discoveries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10092429","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]],"date-time":"2021-09-15T12:00:44Z","timestamp":1631707244000},"page":"2429","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Brain Immune Interactions\u2014Novel Emerging Options to Treat Acute Ischemic Brain Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6734-7979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sajjad","family":"Muhammad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital D\u00fcsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf, Moorenstrasse 5, D-40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, 00100 Helsinki, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Bonn, D-53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shafqat Rasul","family":"Chaudhry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Bonn, D-53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6021-1841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ulf Dietrich","family":"Kahlert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital D\u00fcsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf, Moorenstrasse 5, D-40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mika","family":"Niemel\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, 00100 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"H\u00e4nggi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital D\u00fcsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf, Moorenstrasse 5, D-40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e21","article-title":"Heart disease and stroke statistics\u20142009 update: A report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee","volume":"119","author":"Adams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(99)01401-0","article-title":"Pathobiology of ischaemic stroke: An integrated view","volume":"22","author":"Dirnagl","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60371-8","article-title":"Intracerebral haemorrhage","volume":"373","author":"Qureshi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1414792","article-title":"Endovascular Therapy for Ischemic Stroke with Perfusion-Imaging Selection","volume":"372","author":"Campbell","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. 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