{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T13:46:25Z","timestamp":1790775985209,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":190,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,18]],"date-time":"2021-10-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634515200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) is one of the most prominent neurodegenerative diseases, which impairs cognitive function in afflicted individuals. AD results in gradual decay of neuronal function as a consequence of diverse degenerating events. Several neuroimmune players (such as cytokines and growth factors that are key players in maintaining CNS homeostasis) turn aberrant during crosstalk between the innate and adaptive immunities. This aberrance underlies neuroinflammation and drives neuronal cells toward apoptotic decline. Neuroinflammation involves microglial activation and has been shown to exacerbate AD. This review attempted to elucidate the role of cytokines, growth factors, and associated mechanisms implicated in the course of AD, especially with neuroinflammation. We also evaluated the propensities and specific mechanism(s) of cytokines and growth factors impacting neuron upon apoptotic decline and further shed light on the availability and accessibility of cytokines across the blood-brain barrier and choroid plexus in AD pathophysiology. The pathogenic and the protective roles of macrophage migration and inhibitory factors, neurotrophic factors, hematopoietic-related growth factors, TAU phosphorylation, advanced glycation end products, complement system, and glial cells in AD and neuropsychiatric pathology were also discussed. Taken together, the emerging roles of these factors in AD pathology emphasize the importance of building novel strategies for an effective therapeutic\/neuropsychiatric management of AD in clinics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10102790","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,18]],"date-time":"2021-10-18T23:13:32Z","timestamp":1634598812000},"page":"2790","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["The Potential Role of Cytokines and Growth Factors in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Gilbert","family":"Ogunmokun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, The University of Texas Health Science Center (UTHealth), Houston, TX 77030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9085-4226","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saikat","family":"Dewanjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7880-7854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pratik","family":"Chakraborty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chandrasekhar","family":"Valupadas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Hospital, Warangal 506007, India"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Kakatiya Medical College Superspeciality Hospital, Warangal 506007, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9619-8813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anupama","family":"Chaudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orinin-BioSystems, LE-52, Lotus Road 4, CHD City, Karnal 132001, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7997-0103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Viswakalyan","family":"Kolli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, GITAM Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Visakhapatnam 530045, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5924-7866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uttpal","family":"Anand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jayalakshmi","family":"Vallamkondu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506004, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7022-761X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Parul","family":"Goel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences & Research, Mullana, Ambala 133207, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hari Prasad Reddy","family":"Paluru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Sri Krsihnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515003, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kiran Dip","family":"Gill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Research Block-A, Posgraduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh 160012, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9560-9948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P. Hemachandra","family":"Reddy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"},{"name":"Departments of Neurology, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"},{"name":"Public Health Department of Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"},{"name":"Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, School Health Professions, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1070-3207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"De Feo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramesh","family":"Kandimalla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Biology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Technology, Uppal Road, Tarnaka, Hyderabad 500007, India"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Kakatiya Medical College, Warangal 506007, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00011.2017","article-title":"Neuronal Cell Death","volume":"98","author":"Fricker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. 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