{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T08:27:39Z","timestamp":1793780859211,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,5]],"date-time":"2021-11-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636070400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["120716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["120716"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["120820"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["120820"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept postulates that in utero exposures influence fetal programming and health in later life. Throughout pregnancy, the placenta plays a central role in fetal programming; it regulates the in utero environment and acts as a gatekeeper for nutrient and waste exchange between the mother and the fetus. Maternal exposure to air pollution, including heavy metals, can reach the placenta, where they alter DNA methylation patterns, leading to changes in placental function and fetal reprogramming. This review explores the current knowledge on placental DNA methylation changes associated with prenatal air pollution (including heavy metals) exposure and highlights its effects on fetal development and disease susceptibility. Prenatal exposure to air pollution and heavy metals was associated with altered placental DNA methylation at the global and promoter regions of genes involved in biological processes such as energy metabolism, circadian rhythm, DNA repair, inflammation, cell differentiation, and organ development. The altered placental methylation of these genes was, in some studies, associated with adverse birth outcomes such as low birth weight, small for gestational age, and decreased head circumference. Moreover, few studies indicate that DNA methylation changes in the placenta were sex-specific, and infants born with altered placental DNA methylation patterns were predisposed to developing neurobehavioral abnormalities, cancer, and atopic dermatitis. These findings highlight the importance of more effective and stricter environmental and public health policies to reduce air pollution and protect human health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10113025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,4]],"date-time":"2021-11-04T22:25:54Z","timestamp":1636064754000},"page":"3025","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":89,"title":["Prenatal Air Pollution Exposure and Placental DNA Methylation Changes: Implications on Fetal Development and Future Disease Susceptibility"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0179-213X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Terisha","family":"Ghazi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8905-5926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pragalathan","family":"Naidoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2318-4004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajen N.","family":"Naidoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Nursing and Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4649-4133","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anil A.","family":"Chuturgoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Health Effects Institute (2021, July 15). 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