{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T09:21:51Z","timestamp":1790500911554,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":170,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]],"date-time":"2021-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640736000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The apelinergic system, which includes the apelin receptor (APJ) as well as its two specific ligands, namely apelin and ELABELA (ELA\/APELA\/Toddler), have been the subject of many recent studies due to their pleiotropic effects in humans and other animals. Expression of these factors has been investigated in numerous tissues and organs\u2014for example, the lungs, heart, uterus, and ovary. Moreover, a number of studies have been devoted to understanding the role of apelin and the entire apelinergic system in the most important processes in the body, starting from early stages of human life with regulation of placental function and the proper course of pregnancy. Disturbances in the balance of placental processes such as proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, or hormone secretion may lead to specific pregnancy pathologies; therefore, there is a great need to search for substances that would help in their early diagnosis or treatment. A number of studies have indicated that compounds of the apelinergic system could serve this purpose. Hence, in this review, we summarized the most important reports about the role of apelin and the entire apelinergic system in the regulation of placental physiology and pregnancy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11010099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]],"date-time":"2021-12-29T08:12:15Z","timestamp":1640765535000},"page":"99","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Apelin, APJ, and ELABELA: Role in Placental Function, Pregnancy, and Foetal Development\u2014An Overview"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Monika","family":"Dawid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ewa","family":"Mlyczy\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Jurek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Respekta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karolina","family":"Pich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7634-0675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrycja","family":"Kurowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wiktoria","family":"Gieras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomasz","family":"Milewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecological Endocrinology, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-501 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6379-996X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Kotula-Balak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Centre of Veterinary Medicine JU-UA, University of Agriculture in Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9572-7151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Rak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"46","article-title":"Baby\u2019s First Organ","volume":"317","author":"Erlebacher","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.repbio.2021.100503","article-title":"Differential expression of mTOR related molecules in the placenta from gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and preeclampsia patients","volume":"21","author":"Tsai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2004.06.038","article-title":"Growth and function of the normal human placenta","volume":"114","author":"Gude","year":"2004","journal-title":"Thromb. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1071\/RD05121","article-title":"Placental function in development and disease","volume":"18","author":"Cross","year":"2005","journal-title":"Reprod. Fertil. Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.1998.9489","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of a novel endogenous peptide ligand for the human APJ receptor","volume":"251","author":"Tatemoto","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-13-0227","article-title":"The apelin receptor APJ: Journey from an orphan to a multifaceted regulator of homeostasis","volume":"219","author":"Lolai","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1432","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000091235.94914.75","article-title":"Novel role for the potent endogenous inotrope apelin in human cardiac dysfunction","volume":"108","author":"Chen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4889(00)00143-9","article-title":"Molecular properties of apelin: Tissue distribution and receptor binding","volume":"1538","author":"Kawamata","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfp043","article-title":"Plasma apelin concentration is depressed following acute myocardial infarction in man","volume":"11","author":"Weir","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart. Fail."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/s00380-009-1217-3","article-title":"Apelin: A novel marker for the patients with first ST-elevation myocardial infarction","volume":"25","author":"Sobkowicz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Heart Vessels"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.3109\/10641960903254505","article-title":"Plasma apelin and ADMA Levels in patients with essential hypertension","volume":"32","author":"Sonmez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759091415605114","DOI":"10.1177\/1759091415605114","article-title":"Intranasal Delivery of Apelin-13 Is Neuroprotective and Promotes Angiogenesis After Ischemic Stroke in Mice","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"ASN Neuro."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7692","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.onc.1210573","article-title":"Apelin is a potent activator of tumour neoangiogenesis","volume":"26","author":"Sorli","year":"2007","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3786","DOI":"10.2741\/2967","article-title":"Apelin-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation: The regulation of cyclin D1","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.12891\/ceog2133.2016","article-title":"Effects of apelin on proliferation and apoptosis in rat ovarian granulosa cells","volume":"43","author":"Shuang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9170480","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/9170480","article-title":"Apelin in reproductive physiology and pathology of different species: A critical review","volume":"2018","author":"Kurowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2017.04.014","article-title":"Expression of apelin and apelin receptor (APJ) in porcine ovarian follicles and in vitro effect of apelin on steroidogenesis and proliferation through APJ activation and different signaling pathways","volume":"96","author":"Rak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1530\/REP-16-0677","article-title":"Apelin (APLN) regulates progesterone secretion and oocyte maturation in bovine ovarian cells","volume":"153","author":"Roche","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1007\/s11695-009-9955-y","article-title":"Apelin levels are increased in morbidly obese subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"19","author":"Soriguer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obes. Surg."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186946","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/186946","article-title":"Apelin Protects Primary Rat Retinal Pericytes from Chemical Hypoxia-Induced Apoptosis","volume":"2015","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2015.04.025","article-title":"Effects of apelin on RAW264.7 cells under both normal and hypoxic conditions","volume":"69","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1119(93)90495-O","article-title":"A human gene that shows identity with the gene encoding the angiotensin receptor is located on chromosome 11","volume":"136","author":"Heiber","year":"1993","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4773(99)00081-7","article-title":"Amino acid sequence and embryonic expression of msr\/apj, the mouse homolog of Xenopus X-msr and human APJ","volume":"84","author":"Devic","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mech. Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4781(00)00072-5","article-title":"Distribution of mRNA encoding B78\/apj, the rat homologue of the human APJ receptor, and its endogenous ligand apelin in brain and peripheral tissues","volume":"1492","author":"Selby","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/5.4.356","article-title":"Glycosylation of G-protein-coupled receptors for hormones central to normal reproductive functioning: Its occurrence and role","volume":"5","author":"Wheatley","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2009.01.002","article-title":"Role of helix 8 in G protein-coupled receptors based on structure\u2013function studies on the type 1 angiotensin receptor","volume":"302","author":"Huynh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(96)13198-0","article-title":"Low stringency hybridization study of the dopamine D4 receptor revealed D4-like mRNA distribution of the orphan seven-transmembrane receptor, APJ, in human brain","volume":"219","author":"Matsumoto","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4889(99)00114-7","article-title":"Apelin, the natural ligand of the orphan receptor APJ, is abundantly secreted in the colostrum","volume":"1452","author":"Habata","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1159\/000054609","article-title":"Cloning, pharmacological characterization and brain distribution of the rat apelin receptor","volume":"72","author":"Lenkei","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21061","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M908417199","article-title":"Molecular and functional characteristics of APJ. Tissue distribution of mRNA and interaction with the endogenous ligand apelin","volume":"275","author":"Hosoya","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-4159.2000.0740034.x","article-title":"Characterization of apelin, the ligand for the APJ receptor","volume":"74","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.5.344","article-title":"The expression of apelin and its receptor APJ during different physiological stages in the bovine ovary","volume":"5","author":"Schilffarth","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1161","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00598.2009","article-title":"Apelin and APJ regulation in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle of type 2 diabetic mice and humans","volume":"298","author":"Dray","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2013.11.002","article-title":"ELABELA: A hormone essential for heart development signals via the apelin receptor","volume":"27","author":"Chng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2826.2003.01102.x","article-title":"APJ receptor mRNA expression in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: Regulation by stress and glucocorticoids","volume":"15","author":"Don","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2009.07.016","article-title":"Ontogeny of apelin and its receptor in the rodent gastrointestinal tract","volume":"158","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.emboj.7601982","article-title":"Spatial and temporal role of the apelin\/APJ system in the caliber size regulation of blood vessels during angiogenesis","volume":"27","author":"Kidoya","year":"2008","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248636","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1248636","article-title":"Toddler: An embryonic signal that promotes cell movement via apelin receptors","volume":"343","author":"Pauli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.023218","article-title":"Elabela\/Toddler Is an Endogenous Agonist of the Apelin APJ Receptor in the Adult Cardiovascular System, and Exogenous Administration of the Peptide Compensates for the Downregulation of Its Expression in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension","volume":"135","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/s00395-015-0521-6","article-title":"Characterization of apela, a novel endogenous ligand of apelin receptor, in the adult heart","volume":"111","author":"Ulvila","year":"2016","journal-title":"Basic Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aam6607","article-title":"ELABELA Deficiency Promotes Preeclampsia and Cardiovascular Malformations in Mice","volume":"357","author":"Ho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11475","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.11475","article-title":"Quantitative imaging reveals real-time Pou5f3-Nanog complexes driving dorsoventral mesendoderm patterning in zebrafish","volume":"5","author":"Tian","year":"2016","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2017.08.008","article-title":"Alternative progenitor cells compensate to rebuild the coronary vasculature in Elabela- and apj-deficient hearts","volume":"42","author":"Sharma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8170","DOI":"10.1038\/srep08170","article-title":"Elabela-apelin receptor signaling pathway is functional in mammalian Systems","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e06726","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.06726","article-title":"The hormonal peptide Elabela guides angioblasts to the midline during vasculogenesis","volume":"4","author":"Helker","year":"2015","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2962","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.5b01549","article-title":"Discovery and structure-activity relationship of a bioactive fragment of ELABELA that modulates vascular and cardiac functions","volume":"59","author":"Murza","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1159\/000492093","article-title":"Serum Elabela\/toddler levels are associated with albuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"48","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638468","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2021.638468","article-title":"Lower Plasma Elabela Levels in Hypertensive Patients With Heart Failure Predict the Occurrence of Major Adverse Cardiac Events: A Preliminary Study","volume":"8","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709467","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.709467","article-title":"Elabela Protects Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats From Hypertension and Cardiorenal Dysfunctions Exacerbated by Dietary High-Salt Intake","volume":"12","author":"Sainsily","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.08.014","article-title":"Loss of Apela peptide in mice causes low penetrance embryonic lethality and defects in early mesodermal derivatives","volume":"20","author":"Freyer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-018-0826-1","article-title":"Circulating chemerin levels and gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-7270.2008.00403.x","article-title":"Apelin-13 induces ERK1\/2 but not p38 MAPK activation through coupling of the human apelin receptor to the Gi2 pathway","volume":"40","author":"Bai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"61","article-title":"Functional expression of the seven-transmembrane HIV-1 co-receptor APJ in neural cells","volume":"6","author":"Choe","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18317","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M600606200","article-title":"The apelin receptor is coupled to Gi1 or Gi2 protein and is differentially desensitized by apelin fragments","volume":"281","author":"Masri","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"447","article-title":"Apelin-13 promotes cell proliferation in the H9c2 cardiomyoblast cell line by triggering extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1\/2 and protein kinase B phosphorylation","volume":"17","author":"Yin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2010.02.005","article-title":"Neuroprotective effect of the endogenous neural peptide apelin in cultured mouse cortical neurons","volume":"316","author":"Zeng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphs.2016.12.002","article-title":"Apelin protects against NMDA-induced retinal neuronal death via an APJ receptor by activating Akt and ERK1\/2, and suppressing TNF-\u03b1 expression in mice","volume":"133","author":"Ishimaru","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2010-0576","article-title":"Apelin decreases lipolysis via G(q), G(i), and AMPK-Dependent Mechanisms","volume":"152","author":"Yue","year":"2011","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2015.11.002","article-title":"Apelin-13 protects against apoptosis by activating AMP-activated protein kinase pathway in ischemia stroke","volume":"75","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyd, J.D., and Hamilton, W.J. (1970). The Human Placenta, Heffer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-02807-8"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-106-26490","article-title":"Studies of Placental Morphogenesis I. Radioautographic Studies of Human Placenta Utilizing Tritiated Thymidine","volume":"106","author":"Richart","year":"1961","journal-title":"Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aplin, J.D., Lewis, R.M., and Jones, C.J.P. (2018). Development of the human placental villus. Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-801238-3.99857-X"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1053\/plac.2002.0772","article-title":"Mechanisms of syncytial fusion: A review","volume":"23","author":"Schmitz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-0763-4_6","article-title":"Trophoblast fusion","volume":"713","author":"Huppertz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02890407","article-title":"Receptor-mediated processing of epidermal growth factor in the trophoblast of the human placenta","volume":"61","author":"Arnholdt","year":"1991","journal-title":"Virchows. Arch. B Cell Pathol. Incl. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1053\/plac.1998.0375","article-title":"Apoptotic and proliferative activities in first trimester placentae","volume":"20","author":"Chan","year":"1999","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2814","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dem284","article-title":"Histochemical and morphological examination of proliferation and apoptosis in human first trimester villous trophoblast","volume":"22","author":"Kar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(11)91661-5","article-title":"A novel change in cytologic localization of human chorionic gonadotropin and human placental lactogen in first-trimester placenta in the course of gestation","volume":"167","author":"Maruo","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42941","DOI":"10.1038\/srep42941","article-title":"Cytotrophoblast, Not Syncytiotrophoblast, Dominates Glycolysis and Oxidative Phosphorylation in Human Term Placenta","volume":"7","author":"Kolahi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0354(91)90019-9","article-title":"Ultrastructure of the normal human placenta","volume":"4","author":"Jones","year":"1991","journal-title":"Electron. Microsc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"1213","article-title":"Villous trophoblast of human placenta: A coherent view of its turnover, repair and contributions to villous development and maturation","volume":"16","author":"Mayhew","year":"2001","journal-title":"Histol. Histopathol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1711260306","article-title":"Ultrastructure of the placenta in prolonged pregnancy","volume":"126","author":"Jones","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S34","DOI":"10.1016\/S1096-6374(03)00053-4","article-title":"Human placenta as an endocrine organ","volume":"13","author":"Malassine","year":"2003","journal-title":"Growth Horm. IGF Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0897.1989.tb01009.x","article-title":"Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor and transferrin receptor by human trophoblast populations","volume":"21","author":"Bulmer","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2006.04.002","article-title":"Insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor expression in the placentae of diabetic and normal pregnancies","volume":"83","author":"Hayati","year":"2007","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57471-3","article-title":"Differential Expression of PDGF Receptor-\u03b1 in Human Placental Trophoblasts Leads to Different Entry Pathways by Human Cytomegalovirus Strains","volume":"10","author":"Naing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2009.01.002","article-title":"Evidence for transcriptional activity in the syncytiotrophoblast of the human placenta","volume":"30","author":"Ellery","year":"2009","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1002\/aja.1000980306","article-title":"A description of 34 human ova within the first 17 days of development","volume":"98","author":"Hertig","year":"1956","journal-title":"Am. J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dev163428","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.163428","article-title":"Development of the human placenta","volume":"146","author":"Turco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1641","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.294.6588.1641","article-title":"Third trimester placental grading by ultrasonography as a test of fetal wellbeing","volume":"294","author":"Proud","year":"1987","journal-title":"Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E810","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00012.2019","article-title":"Apelin is a novel regulator of human trophoblast amino acid transport","volume":"316","author":"Vaughan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"1","article-title":"Modulation of apelin and APJ receptor in normal and preeclampsia-complicated placentas","volume":"22","author":"Cobellis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Histol. Histopathol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2010.06.001","article-title":"Maternal apelin physiology during rat pregnancy: The role of the placenta","volume":"31","author":"Pijnenborg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2011.04061.x","article-title":"Apelin levels in normal pregnancy","volume":"75","author":"Kourtis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E852","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00272.2015","article-title":"Downregulation of apelin in the human placental chorionic villi from preeclamptic pregnancies","volume":"15","author":"Yamaleyeva","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"691","article-title":"Apelin and apelin receptor in human placenta: Expression, signalling pathway and regulation of trophoblast JEG-3 and BeWo cells proliferation and cell cycle","volume":"45","author":"Kurowska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4773(96)00585-0","article-title":"Expression of a new G protein-coupled receptor X-msr is associated with an endothelial lineage in Xenopus laevis","volume":"59","author":"Devic","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mech. Dev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2007.01.011","article-title":"Apelin and its receptor control heart field formation during zebrafish gastrulation","volume":"12","author":"Zeng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-4004(97)90066-7","article-title":"Differential expression of G1 cyclins during human placentogenesis","volume":"18","author":"DeLoia","year":"1997","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)64648-2","article-title":"A repertoire of cell cycle regulators whose expression is coordinated with human cytotrophoblast differentiation","volume":"157","author":"Genbacev","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1053\/plac.1999.0396","article-title":"Expression patterns of the cell-cycle inhibitor p27 and the cell-cycle promoter cyclin E in the human placenta throughout gestation: Implications for the control of proliferation","volume":"20","author":"Bamberger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-006-0160-y","article-title":"Location of cell cycle regulators cyclin B1, cyclin A, PCNA, Ki67 and cell cycle inhibitors p21, p27 and p57 in human first trimester placenta and deciduas","volume":"125","author":"Korgun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1078\/0065-1281-00683","article-title":"Expression of proliferation and apoptotic markers in human placenta during pregnancy","volume":"104","author":"Danihel","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Histochem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e926414","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.926414","article-title":"Cyclin G2 Is Involved in the Proliferation of Placental Trophoblast Cells and Their Interactions with Endothelial Cells","volume":"26","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2018.00100","article-title":"miR-518b Enhances Human Trophoblast Cell Proliferation Through Targeting Rap1b and Activating Ras-MAPK Signal","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19077","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-55650-5","article-title":"Peptide hormone ELABELA enhances extravillous trophoblast differentiation, but placenta is not the major source of circulating ELABELA in pregnancy","volume":"9","author":"Georgiadou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63671-1","article-title":"Temporal and spatial patterns of expression of inhibitors of apoptosis in human placentas","volume":"163","author":"Ka","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cdd.4401307","article-title":"Syncytial fusion of human trophoblast depends on caspase 8","volume":"11","author":"Black","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0264.2010.01012.x","article-title":"Apoptosis and Bcl-2 protein expression in human placenta over the course of normal pregnancy","volume":"39","author":"Soni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mlyczy\u0144ska, E., Myszka, M., Kurowska, P., Dawid, M., Milewicz, T., Ba\u0142ajewicz-Nowak, M., Kowalczyk, P., and Rak, A. (2021). Anti-Apoptotic Effect of Apelin in Human Placenta: Studies on BeWo Cells and Villous Explants from Third-Trimester Human Pregnancy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22052760"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2015.10.005","article-title":"The endocrine function of human placenta: An overview","volume":"32","author":"Costa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reprod. Biomed. Online"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.20995","article-title":"Biochemical characterization and modulation of LH\/CG-receptor during human trophoblast differentiation","volume":"212","author":"Pidoux","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1080\/09513590500099305","article-title":"Progesterone and human placental lactogen inhibit leptin secretion on cultured trophoblast cells from human placentas at term","volume":"21","author":"Coya","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gynecol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1080\/09513590.2019.1576607","article-title":"Human placental lactogen mRNA in maternal plasma play a role in prenatal diagnosis of abnormally invasive placenta: Yes or no?","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gynecol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ando.2016.04.023","article-title":"Evolution of steroids during pregnancy: Maternal, placental and fetal synthesis","volume":"77","author":"Morel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-63-5-1145","article-title":"Developmental expression of genes for the stereoidogenic enzymes P450scc (20,22-desmolase), P450c17 (17 alpha-hydroxylase\/17,20-lyase), and P450c21 (21-hydroxylase) in the human fetus","volume":"63","author":"Voutilainen","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karahoda, R., Kallol, S., Groessl, M., Ontsouka, E., Anderle, P., Fluck, C., Staud, F., and Albrecht, C. (2021). Revisiting Steroidogenic Pathways in the Human Placenta and Primary Human Trophoblast Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22041704"},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"3903","article-title":"Expression of steroidogenic enzymes in human placenta according to the gestational age","volume":"19","author":"Hong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1080\/09513590.2020.1739264","article-title":"Circulating levels of Elabela and Apelin in the second and third trimesters of pregnancies with gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"36","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gynecol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"211246102","article-title":"Apelin decreased placental hormone secretion by human trophoblast BeWo cells via apelin receptor, protein kinase A and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1\/2 activation","volume":"70","author":"Dawid","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod64.4.1033","article-title":"Angiogenesis in the placenta","volume":"64","author":"Reynolds","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ph.53.030191.001245","article-title":"Regulators of angiogenesis","volume":"53","author":"Klagsbrun","year":"1991","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(95)90335-6","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor gene expression in ovine placenta and fetal membranes","volume":"173","author":"Cheung","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1530\/jrf.0.1050205","article-title":"Localization of vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptor, flt, in human placenta and decidua by immunohistochemistry","volume":"105","author":"Cooper","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Fertil."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1002\/aja.1002030109","article-title":"Vascularization of the mouse embryo: A study of flk-1, tek, tie, and vascular endothelial growth factor expression during development","volume":"203","author":"Dumont","year":"1995","journal-title":"Dev. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1038\/376062a0","article-title":"Failure of blood-island formation and vasculogenesis in Flk-1-deficient mice","volume":"376","author":"Shalaby","year":"1995","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.82.9.1007","article-title":"Role of nitric oxide in the angiogenic response in vitro to basic fibroblast growth factor","volume":"82","author":"Babaei","year":"1998","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1006\/mvre.1998.2081","article-title":"TIE1 and TIE2 receptor tyrosine kinases inversely regulate embryonic angiogenesis by the mechanism of intussusceptive microvascular growth","volume":"56","author":"Patan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Microvasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1006\/mvre.1999.2179","article-title":"Angiopoietin-1 and its receptor Tie-2 participate in the regulation of capillary-like tubule formation and survival of endothelial cells","volume":"58","author":"Hayes","year":"1999","journal-title":"Microvasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/S0015-0282(16)59704-0","article-title":"Early pregnancy wastage: Relationship between chorionic vascularization and embryonic development","volume":"49","author":"Meegdes","year":"1988","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1093\/HUMREP\/10.6.1497","article-title":"Uterine vascularity during stimulation and its correlation with implantation in in-vitro fertilization","volume":"10","author":"Bassil","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.3109\/10641955.2013.813535","article-title":"Decreased expression of apelin in placentas from severe pre-eclampsia patients","volume":"32","author":"Inuzuka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hypertens. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2019.03.003","article-title":"Elabela and Apelin actions in healthy and pathological pregnancies","volume":"46","author":"Marousez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.1.06582","article-title":"Monocarboxylate transporter 8 expression in the human placenta: The effects of severe intrauterine growth restriction","volume":"189","author":"Chan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4488","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2003-030228","article-title":"Placental iodothyronine deiodinase expression in normal and growth-restricted human pregnancies","volume":"88","author":"Chan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2006.12.004","article-title":"Regulation of amniotic fluid volume","volume":"28","author":"Beall","year":"2007","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2011.01.011","article-title":"Review: Transport of maternal cholesterol to the fetal circulation","volume":"32","author":"Woollett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_128","first-page":"R697","article-title":"Gestational maturation of placental glucose transfer capacity in sheep","volume":"261","author":"Molina","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_129","unstructured":"Duggan, C., Watkins, J.B., Koletzko, B., and Walker, W.A. (2016). Nutrition in Pediatrics: Basic Science, Clinical Applications, PMPH-USA Limited."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"59","article-title":"Maternal lipid metabolism and placental lipid transfer","volume":"65","author":"Herrera","year":"2006","journal-title":"Horm. Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.2337\/db15-0228","article-title":"Apelin Controls Fetal and Neonatal Glucose Homeostasis and Is Altered by Maternal Undernutrition","volume":"65","author":"Mayeur","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1038\/hr.2016.152","article-title":"Pathophysiology of preeclampsia: An angiogenic imbalance and long-lasting systemic vascular dysfunction","volume":"40","author":"Tomimatsu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hypertens. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2013). Hypertension in pregnancy. Report of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists\u2019 Task Force on Hypertension in Pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol., 122, 1122\u20131131."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R97","DOI":"10.1530\/REP-16-0495","article-title":"Effects of maternal obesity on placental function and fetal development","volume":"153","author":"Howell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"118","article-title":"Severe preeclampsia and fetal virilization in a spontaneous singleton pregnancy complicated by hyperreactio luteinalis","volume":"16","author":"Simsek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.3109\/10641955.2014.944709","article-title":"Maternal serum apelin and YKL-40 levels in early and late-onset pre-eclampsia","volume":"33","author":"Kucur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hypertens. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.14715\/cmb\/2017.63.11.8","article-title":"Investigation of role of vascular endothelial growth factor, Annexin A5 and Apelin by immunohistochemistry method in placenta of preeclampsia patients","volume":"63","author":"Colcimen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3109\/10641955.2012.690054","article-title":"Decreased maternal plasma apelin concentrations in preeclampsia","volume":"31","author":"Bortoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hypertens. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/10641955.2020.1777300","article-title":"Serum apelin and galectin-3 in preeclampsia in Iraq","volume":"39","author":"Taha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertens. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preghy.2020.12.004","article-title":"Association of glutamate cystein ligase (GCL) activity Peroxiredoxin 4 (prxR4) and apelin levels in women with preeclampsia","volume":"23","author":"Mazloomi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pregnancy Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"1","article-title":"The evaluation of serum apelin levels in patients complicated with preeclampsia","volume":"1","author":"Temur","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1111\/jog.14137","article-title":"Evaluation of serum apelin-13 and apelin-36 concentrations in preeclamptic pregnancies","volume":"46","author":"Kazaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"1","article-title":"Maternal serum Apelin 13 and APLN gene promoter variant -1860T\u2009>\u2009C in preeclampsia","volume":"17","author":"Gandham","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_144","first-page":"5917","article-title":"Apelin as a novel drug for treating preeclampsia","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8579","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-44971-0","article-title":"Systemic Outcomes of (Pyr 1)-Apelin-13 Infusion at Mid-Late Pregnancy in a Rat Model with Preeclamptic Features","volume":"9","author":"Yamaleyeva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11110","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.11110","article-title":"Ameliorative effect of apelin-13 against renal complications in L-NAME-induced preeclampsia in rats","volume":"9","author":"Hamza","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2018.1484089","article-title":"ELABELA plasma concentrations are increased in women with late-onset preeclampsia","volume":"33","author":"Panaitescu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Para, R., Romero, R., Gomez-Lopez, N., Tarca, A.L., Panaitescu, B., Done, B., Hsu, R., Pacora, P., and Hsu, C.-D. (2020). Maternal circulating concentrations of soluble Fas and Elabela in early- and late-onset preeclampsia. J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2020.1716720"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2018.04.008","article-title":"ELABELA\/APELA Levels Are Not Decreased in the Maternal Circulation or Placenta among Women with Preeclampsia","volume":"188","author":"Pritchard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1080\/01443615.2019.1572727","article-title":"Evaluation of elabela, apelin and nitric oxide findings in maternal blood of normal pregnant women, pregnant women with pre-eclampsia, severe pre-eclampsia and umbilical arteries and venules of newborns","volume":"39","author":"Deniz","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E773","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00383.2018","article-title":"ELABELA, as a potential diagnostic biomarker of preeclampsia, regulates abnormally shallow placentation via APJ","volume":"316","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preghy.2019.06.007","article-title":"Is ELABELA a reliable biomarker for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy?","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pregnancy Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2021.02.002","article-title":"ELABELA alleviates syncytiotrophoblast hypoxia\/reoxygenation injury and preeclampsia-like symptoms in mice by reducing apoptosis","volume":"106","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5017362","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5017362","article-title":"Correlation between Apelin and Some Angiogenic Factors in the Pathogenesis of Preeclampsia: Apelin-13 as Novel Drug for Treating Preeclampsia and Its Physiological Effects on Placenta","volume":"2021","author":"Hamza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_155","first-page":"1","article-title":"Serum levels of apelin, salusin-alpha, and salusin-beta in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia","volume":"2015","author":"Simsek","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_156","first-page":"332","article-title":"Intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR): Epidemiology and etiology","volume":"3","author":"Romo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Endocrinol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s40348-014-0002-2","article-title":"Perinatal programming\u2014myths, fact, and future of research","volume":"1","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Pedriatr."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4137\/CMPed.S40070","article-title":"Intrauterine growth restriction: Antenatal and postnatal aspects","volume":"10","author":"Sharma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Insights Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2007.11.003","article-title":"The IUGR newborn","volume":"32","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2007.00565.x","article-title":"Circulating apelin concentrations in mother\/infant pairs at term","volume":"96","author":"Gourgiotis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1177\/1933719109336614","article-title":"Reviews: Adipocytokines in normal and complicated pregnancies","volume":"16","author":"Briana","year":"2009","journal-title":"Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1177\/1933719116630422","article-title":"Apelin in Normal Pregnancy and Pregnancies Complicated by Placental Insufficiency","volume":"23","author":"Doherty","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogoh.2021.102127","article-title":"Circulating levels of Elabela in pregnant women complicated with intrauterine growth restriction","volume":"50","author":"Behram","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Gynecol. Obstet. Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plows, J.F., Stanley, J.L., Baker, P.N., Reynolds, C.M., and Vickers, M.H. (2018). The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19113342"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e101","DOI":"10.2337\/dc17-0781","article-title":"Impact of Changes Over Time in Adipokines and Inflammatory Proteins on Changes in Insulin Sensitivity, Beta-Cell Function, and Glycemia in Women with Previous Gestational Dysglycemia","volume":"40","author":"Retnakaran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(13)70176-1","article-title":"Adipokines in gestational diabetes","volume":"2","author":"Fasshauer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2009.10.018","article-title":"Plasma apelin levels and apelin\/APJ mRNA expression in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"87","author":"Telejko","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_168","first-page":"527","article-title":"Maternal and cord blood apelin, resistin and visfatin levels in gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"104","author":"Oncul","year":"2013","journal-title":"Minerva Med."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-011-9577-8","article-title":"Cord blood nesfatin-1 and apelin-36 levels in gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"41","author":"Aslan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_170","first-page":"5547228","article-title":"The Potential Role of Chemerin, Lipocalin 2, and Apelin in the Diagnosis and Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"2021","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/11\/1\/99\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:55:26Z","timestamp":1760169326000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/11\/1\/99"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]]},"references-count":170,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["cells11010099"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells11010099","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]]}}}