{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T16:39:49Z","timestamp":1790959189678,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":184,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]],"date-time":"2022-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cachexia may be caused by congestive heart failure, and it is then called cardiac cachexia, which leads to increased morbidity and mortality. Cardiac cachexia also worsens skeletal muscle degradation. Cardiac cachexia is the loss of edema-free muscle mass with or without affecting fat tissue. It is mainly caused by a loss of balance between protein synthesis and degradation, or it may result from intestinal malabsorption. The loss of balance in protein synthesis and degradation may be the consequence of altered endocrine mediators such as insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1, leptin, ghrelin, melanocortin, growth hormone and neuropeptide Y. In contrast to many other health problems, fat accumulation in the heart is protective in this condition. Fat in the heart can be divided into epicardial, myocardial and cardiac steatosis. In this review, we describe and discuss these topics, pointing out the interconnection between heart failure and cardiac cachexia and the protective role of cardiac obesity. We also set the basis for possible screening methods that may allow for a timely diagnosis of cardiac cachexia, since there is still no cure for this condition. Several therapeutic procedures are discussed including exercise, nutritional proposals, myostatin antibodies, ghrelin, anabolic steroids, anti-inflammatory substances, beta-adrenergic agonists, medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, cannabinoids, statins, thalidomide, proteasome inhibitors and pentoxifylline. However, to this date, there is no cure for cachexia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11061039","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,20]],"date-time":"2022-03-20T21:25:00Z","timestamp":1647811500000},"page":"1039","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Interconnection between Cardiac Cachexia and Heart Failure\u2014Protective Role of Cardiac Obesity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mar\u00eda Elena","family":"Soto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiolog\u00eda \u201cIgnacio Ch\u00e1vez\u201d, M\u00e9xico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6510-2954","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Israel","family":"P\u00e9rez-Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Biomedicine, Instituto Nacional de Cardiolog\u00eda \u201cIgnacio Ch\u00e1vez\u201d, M\u00e9xico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Esther","family":"Rubio-Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiolog\u00eda \u201cIgnacio Ch\u00e1vez\u201d, M\u00e9xico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linaloe","family":"Manzano-Pech","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Biomedicine, Instituto Nacional de Cardiolog\u00eda \u201cIgnacio Ch\u00e1vez\u201d, M\u00e9xico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ver\u00f3nica","family":"Guarner-Lans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiolog\u00eda \u201cIgnacio Ch\u00e1vez\u201d, M\u00e9xico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.4.735","article-title":"Cachexia: Pathophysiology and clinical relevance","volume":"83","author":"Morley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-014-0164-8","article-title":"Prevalence, incidence and clinical impact of chaexia: Facts and numbers\u2014Update 2014","volume":"5","author":"Anker","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12589","article-title":"COVID-19: A major cause of cachexia and sarcopenia?","volume":"11","author":"Morley","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12674","article-title":"Weight loss, malnutrition, and cachexia in COVID-19: Facts and numbers","volume":"12","author":"Anker","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S273967","article-title":"Cardiac Cachexia: A Well-known but challenging complication of heart failure","volume":"5","author":"Krysztofiak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"9854085","article-title":"Cardiac Obesity and Cardiac Cachexia: Is There a Pathophysiological Link?","volume":"2019","author":"Kibel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.2459\/JCM.0b013e3282f2de13","article-title":"Weight loss and quality of life in chronic heart failure patients","volume":"9","author":"Mariotti","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171016","article-title":"American Heart Association; Obesity Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: Pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss: An update of the 1997 American Heart Association Scientific Statement on Obesity and Heart Disease from the Obesity Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism","volume":"113","author":"Poirier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22140","article-title":"The obesity paradox: A misleading term that should be abandoned","volume":"26","author":"Flegal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hfc.2019.08.008","article-title":"The impact of obesity in heart failure","volume":"16","author":"Carbone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Clin."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-006-0052-6","article-title":"Adiposopathy is a more rational treatment target for metabolic disease than obesity alone","volume":"8","author":"Bays","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12043","article-title":"Skeletal muscle wasting in cachexia and sarcopenia: Molecular pathophysiology and impact of exercise training","volume":"6","author":"Bowen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2008.06.013","article-title":"Cachexia: A new definition","volume":"27","author":"Evans","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)12892-9","article-title":"Prognostic importance of weight loss in chronic heart failure and the effect of treatment with angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors: An observational study","volume":"361","author":"Anker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1067\/mhj.2002.123314","article-title":"The cardiac component of cardiac cachexia","volume":"144","author":"Florea","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635.e15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2016.02.007","article-title":"Characteristics of hospitalizations for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction","volume":"129","author":"Goyal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcnurse.2006.05.004","article-title":"Fatigue is a prevalent and severe symptom associated with uncertainty and sense of coherence in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"6","author":"Falk","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7117.2008.07275.x","article-title":"Correlates of fatigue in patients with heart failure","volume":"23","author":"Evangelista","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Cardiovasc. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2007.07.016","article-title":"Altered intestinal function in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"50","author":"Sandek","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpendmet0247","article-title":"The need for a standardized definition for cachexia in chronic illness","volume":"2","author":"Springer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-9007(01)00627-X","article-title":"Metabolic and nutritional disorders in cardiac cachexia","volume":"17","author":"Mustafa","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2009.07.042","article-title":"Nutritional markers and prognosis in cardiac cachexia","volume":"146","author":"Ferreira","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2008.10.015","article-title":"\u201cSick fat,\u201d metabolic disease, and atherosclerosis","volume":"122","author":"Bays","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2460","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000099542.57313.C5","article-title":"Human epicardial adipose tissue is a source of inflammatory mediators","volume":"108","author":"Mazurek","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2840-5-1","article-title":"Human epicardial adipose tissue expresses a pathogenic profile of adipocytokines in patients with cardiovascular disease","volume":"5","author":"Baker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orcp.2013.12.005","article-title":"Mechanisms of heart failure in obesity","volume":"8","author":"Ebong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obes. Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-789X.2009.00623.x","article-title":"Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue: Structural and functional differences","volume":"11","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.15420\/cfr.2016:25:2","article-title":"Global public health burden of heart failure","volume":"3","author":"Savarese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Card. Fail. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Feingold, K.R., Anawalt, B., and Boyce, A. (2020). Diabetes, Cardiomyopathy, and Heart Failure. Endotext, MDText.com, Inc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1097\/HPC.0b013e318057d4c9","article-title":"Cardiovascular disease under the influence of excess visceral fat","volume":"6","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crit. Pathw. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.1.1.93","article-title":"Atrophy of the heart: A correlative study of eighty-five proved cases","volume":"1","year":"1950","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"39","article-title":"Cardiac findings in generalized lipodystrophy","volume":"413","author":"Foerster","year":"1996","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2013.05.036","article-title":"Cardiac steatosis and left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with generalized lipodystrophy as determined by magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging","volume":"112","author":"Nelson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.2217\/17584299.4.1.55","article-title":"Epicardial adipose tissue as a cardiovascular risk marker","volume":"4","author":"McLean","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000582","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.113.000582","article-title":"Epicardial and perivascular adipose tissues and their influence on cardiovascular disease: Basic mechanisms and clinical associations","volume":"3","author":"Fitzgibbons","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.821181","article-title":"Local inflammation and hypoxia abolish the protective anticontractile properties of perivascular fat in obese patients","volume":"119","author":"Greenstein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.178458","article-title":"Assessment of coronary artery disease by cardiac Computed tomography: A scientific statement from the American heart association committee on cardiovascular imaging and intervention, council on cardiovascular radiology and intervention, and committee on cardiac imaging, council on clinical cardiology","volume":"114","author":"Budoff","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2296","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002238","article-title":"Intramyocardial adiposity after myocardial infarction: New implications of a substrate for ventricular tachycardia","volume":"128","author":"Pouliopoulos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"e004998","article-title":"Influence of intramyocardial adipose tissue on the accuracy of endocardial contact mapping of the chronic myocardial infarction substrate","volume":"10","author":"Samanta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.10372","article-title":"Myocardial triglycerides and systolic function in humans: In vivo evaluation by localized proton spectroscopy and cardiac imaging","volume":"49","author":"Szczepaniak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Magn. Reason. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4472","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-0436","article-title":"Contribution of glucose tolerance and gender to cardiac adiposity","volume":"94","author":"Iozzo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E897","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00509.2009","article-title":"Shedding light on the enigma of myocardial lipotoxicity: The involvement of known and putative regulators of fatty acid storage and mobilization","volume":"298","author":"Brindley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvr212","article-title":"Lipotoxicity in type 2 diabetic Cardiomyopathy","volume":"92","author":"Schrauwen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchf.2018.11.017","article-title":"Identification of frailty in chronic heart failure","volume":"7","author":"Sze","year":"2019","journal-title":"JACC Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glt011","article-title":"Impaired aerobic capacity and physical functional performance in older heart failure patients with preserved ejection fraction: Role of lean body mass","volume":"68","author":"Haykowsky","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"M146","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/56.3.M146","article-title":"Frailty in older adults: Evidence for a phenotype","volume":"56","author":"Fried","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)31786-6","article-title":"Frailty: Implications for clinical practice and public health","volume":"394","author":"Hoogendijk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2017.03.005","article-title":"Relationship between depression and frailty in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"36","author":"Soysal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gingrich, A., Volkert, D., Kiesswetter, E., Thomanek, M., Bach, S., Sieber, C.C., and Zopf, Y. (2019). Prevalence and overlap of sarcopenia, frailty, cachexia and malnutrition in older medical inpatients. BMC Geriatr., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-019-1115-1"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"9821","article-title":"Mechanisms of the anorexia of aging\u2014A review","volume":"37","author":"Kostka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Age"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2021.03.012","article-title":"The interplay between nutrition, metabolic, and endocrine disorders in chronic kidney disease","volume":"41","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/gls068","article-title":"The role of androgens and estrogens on healthy aging and longevity","volume":"67","author":"Horstman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C24","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00333.2021","article-title":"Skeletal muscle wasting: The estrogen side of sexual dimorphism","volume":"322","author":"McMillin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2019.00974","article-title":"Cortisol and Major Depressive Disorder-Translating Findings from Humans to Animal Models and Back","volume":"10","author":"Nandam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.109.868513","article-title":"Serum cortisol as a useful predictor of cardiac events in patients with chronic heart failure: The impact of oxidative stress","volume":"2","author":"Yamaji","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12421","article-title":"Kidney cachexia or protein-energy wasting in chronic kidney disease: Facts and numbers","volume":"10","author":"Koppe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soria-Castro, E., Guarner-Lans, V., Soto, M.E., Avila-Casado, C., Manzano Pech, L., and P\u00e9rez-Torres, I. (2020). Alteration of the fatty acid metabolism in the rat kidney caused by the injection of serum from patients with collapsing glomerulopathy. Biomedicines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines8100388"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-009-1427-z","article-title":"Inflammation and cachexia in chronic kidney disease","volume":"25","author":"Cheung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-006-0194-3","article-title":"Energy homeostasis and cachexia in chronic kidney disease","volume":"21","author":"Mak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4294","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.12253","article-title":"Mechanisms regulating skeletal muscle growth and atrophy","volume":"280","author":"Schiaffino","year":"2013","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-015-1477-x","article-title":"Pathophysiology of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure: Signaling pathways and novel therapeutic targets","volume":"89","author":"Tham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.905","article-title":"Protein turnover in the failing heart: An ever-changing landscape","volume":"19","author":"Cheema","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.48.5.601","article-title":"Protein synthesis and degradation in cardiac stress","volume":"48","author":"Schreiber","year":"1981","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"4481","article-title":"The response of muscle protein anabolism to combined hyperaminoacidemia and glucose-induced hyperinsulinemia is impaired in the elderly","volume":"85","author":"Volpi","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.05-4607fje","article-title":"Insulin resistance of muscle protein metabolism in aging","volume":"20","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2006","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/129.1.227S","article-title":"Muscle protein breakdown and the critical role of the ubiquitinproteasome pathway in normal and disease states","volume":"129","author":"Lecker","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2013.05.002","article-title":"Deubiquitinases in skeletal muscle atrophy","volume":"45","author":"Wing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1515\/BC.2004.054","article-title":"Interaction of calpastatin with calpain: A review","volume":"385","author":"Wendt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00029.2002","article-title":"The calpain system","volume":"83","author":"Goll","year":"2003","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739095","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2021.739095","article-title":"Advances in Cardiotoxicity Induced by Altered Mitochondrial Dynamics and Mitophagy","volume":"8","author":"Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Castro, G.S., Simoes, E., Lima, J.D.C.C., Ortiz-Silva, M., Festuccia, W.T., Tokeshi, F., Alc\u00e2ntara, P.S., Otoch, J.P., Coletti, D., and Seelaender, M. (2019). Human Cachexia Induces Changes in Mitochondria, Autophagy and Apoptosis in the Skeletal Muscle. Cancers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers11091264"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3292087","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/3292087","article-title":"Disrupted Skeletal muscle mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy, and biogenesis during cancer cachexia: A role for inflammation","volume":"2017","author":"VanderVeen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2789014","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2789014","article-title":"Therapeutic Approaches in mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and autophagy in uremic cachexia: Role of aerobic exercise","volume":"2019","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardiores.2006.08.018","article-title":"Nutrition, metabolism, and the complex pathophysiology of cachexia in chronic heart failure","volume":"73","author":"Doehner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"601","article-title":"Fisiopatologia della cachessia nella insufficienza cardiaca: Ruolo del sistema neuroendocrino [Chronic heart failure and cachexia: Role of endocrine system]","volume":"59","author":"Muoio","year":"2011","journal-title":"Minerva Cardioangiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-6101(96)00029-9","article-title":"Growth factors in skeletal muscle regeneration","volume":"7","author":"Husmann","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s10974-010-9204-y","article-title":"Cellular mechanisms and local progenitor activation to regulate skeletal muscle mass","volume":"3","author":"Cassano","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Muscle Res. Cell Motil."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E591","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00073.2004","article-title":"IGF-1 stimulates muscle growth by suppressing protein breakdown and expression of atrophy-related ubiquitin ligases, atrogin-1 and MuRF1","volume":"287","author":"Sacheck","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5635","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.140.12.7217","article-title":"Regulation of components of the ubiquitin system by insulin-like growth factor I and growth hormone in skeletal muscle of rats made catabolic with dexamethasone","volume":"140","author":"Chrysis","year":"1999","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2279","DOI":"10.2527\/1994.7292279x","article-title":"Effects of serum and insulin-like growth factor I on protein degradation and protease gene expression in rat L8 myotubes","volume":"72","author":"Hong","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20405","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0911570106","article-title":"Increased muscle PGC-1a expression protects from sarcopenia and metabolic disease during aging","volume":"106","author":"Wenz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5273(02)00233-4","article-title":"The syndrome of cardiac cachexia","volume":"85","author":"Anker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1097\/00001573-199905000-00004","article-title":"Insights into the pathogenesis of chronic heart failure: Immune activation and cachexia","volume":"14","author":"Anker","year":"1999","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.2174\/1570161053586868","article-title":"The emerging roles of leptin and ghrelin in cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology","volume":"3","author":"Sharma","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2019.170226","article-title":"Ghrelin as an anti-inflammatory and protective agent in ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"124","author":"Raghay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s11897-012-0118-4","article-title":"Micronutrients in chronic heart failure","volume":"10","author":"Krim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Heart Fail. Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12545","article-title":"The effect of vitamin D on sarcopenia depends on the level of physical activity in older adults","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vinke, P., Wesselink, E., van Orten-Luiten, W., and van Norren, K. (2020). The Use of proton pump inhibitors may increase symptoms of muscle function loss in patients with chronic illnesses. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21010323"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2014.00145","article-title":"The role of vitamin D in skeletal and cardiac muscle function","volume":"5","author":"Polly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2018.09.031","article-title":"Vitamin D, muscle recovery, sarcopenia, cachexia, and muscle atrophy","volume":"60","author":"Garcia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12460","article-title":"Mice with myocyte deletion of vitamin D receptor have sarcopenia and impaired muscle function","volume":"10","author":"Girgis","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1159\/000087203","article-title":"Low-dose vitamin D prevents muscular atrophy and reduces falls and hip fractures in women after stroke: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"20","author":"Sato","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cerebrovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5138","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2003-0502","article-title":"Deletion of vitamin D receptor gene in mice results in abnormal skeletal muscle development with deregulated expression of myoregulatory transcription factors","volume":"144","author":"Endo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1097\/SPC.0000000000000302","article-title":"The role of vitamin D in cancer cachexia","volume":"11","author":"Penna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Support. Palliat. Care"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2011-0151","article-title":"Preliminary report: Vitamin D deficiency in advanced cancer patients with symptoms of fatigue or anorexia","volume":"16","author":"Dev","year":"2011","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"512","article-title":"Vitamin D in oncology: Update 2015","volume":"38","author":"Kisters","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Monatsschr. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2019.03.007","article-title":"Nutrition, obesity, and cachexia in patients with heart failure: A consensus statement from the Heart Failure Society of America scientific statements committee","volume":"25","author":"Vest","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12127","article-title":"A systematic review on the role of vitamins, minerals, proteins, and other supplements for the treatment of cachexia in cancer: A European Palliative Care Research Centre cachexia project","volume":"8","author":"Mochamat","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(01)01227-X","article-title":"Chronic heart failure and micronutrients","volume":"37","author":"Clark","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2011.10.008","article-title":"Adipose tissue inflammation and cancer cachexia: Possible role of nuclear transcription factors","volume":"57","author":"Batista","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597675","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.597675","article-title":"Inflammation and skeletal muscle wasting during cachexia","volume":"11","author":"Webster","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"P4","article-title":"Is anaemia a cause or a consequence of heart failure in the elderly?","volume":"85","author":"Wisniacki","year":"2001","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2015.209","article-title":"Synbiotic approach restores intestinal homeostasis and prolongs survival in leukaemic mice with cachexia","volume":"10","author":"Bindels","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.06.031","article-title":"Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome","volume":"143","author":"Vrieze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1038\/45230","article-title":"Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach","volume":"402","author":"Kojima","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/25.2.144","article-title":"Fat malabsorption in elderly patients with cardiac cachexia","volume":"25","author":"King","year":"1996","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e47258","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.201847258","article-title":"Energy metabolism in cachexia","volume":"20","author":"Rohm","year":"2019","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-879X1998001000017","article-title":"Effect ofWalker256tumor growth on intestinal absorption of leucine, methion-ine and glucose in newly weaned and mature rats","volume":"31","author":"Marcondes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0b013e32830a4c6e","article-title":"The emergingrole of the gut in chronic heart failure","volume":"11","author":"Sandek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2014.02.003","article-title":"Cardiolipin content is involved in liver mitochondrial energy wasting associated with cancer-induced cachexia without the involvement of adenine nucleotide translocase","volume":"1842","author":"Julienne","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.suc.2011.02.007","article-title":"Cachexia, malnutrition, the refeeding syndrome, and lessons from Goldilocks","volume":"91","author":"Palesty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Surg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/S0261-5614(02)00214-5","article-title":"Ad Hoc ESPEN Working Group. Nutritional risk screening (NRS 2002): A new method based on an analysis of controlled clinical trials","volume":"22","author":"Kondrup","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1177\/014860718701100108","article-title":"What is subjective global assessment of nutritional status?","volume":"11","author":"Detsky","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-9007(98)00171-3","article-title":"The mini nutritional assessment (MNA) and its use in grading the nutritional state of elderly patients","volume":"15","author":"Vellas","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN20041258","article-title":"Malnutrition in hospital outpatients and inpatients: Prevalence, concurrent validity and ease of use of the \u2018malnutrition universal screening tool\u2019 (\u2018MUST\u2019) for adults","volume":"92","author":"Stratton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2004.07.015","article-title":"Development and validation of a hospital screening tool for malnutrition: The short nutritional assessment questionnaire (SNAQ)","volume":"24","author":"Kruizenga","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.679779","article-title":"Body mass index and prognosis in patients with chronic heart failure: Insights from the candesartan in heart failure: Assessment of reduction in mortality and morbidity (CHARM) program","volume":"116","author":"Kenchaiah","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1177\/0148607115621863","article-title":"Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of critical care medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.)","volume":"40","author":"McClave","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.08.037","article-title":"ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit","volume":"38","author":"Singer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.08.002","article-title":"GLIM Core Leadership Committee, GLIM Working Group. GLIM criteria for the diagnosis of malnutrition e a consensus report from the global clinical nutrition community","volume":"38","author":"Cederholm","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_121","first-page":"178","article-title":"Parenteral Nutrition Safety and Clinical Practice Committees, American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. ASPEN consensus recommendations for refeeding syndrome","volume":"35","author":"Seres","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1177\/1479972316679664","article-title":"Sarcopenia and frailty in chronic respiratory disease","volume":"14","author":"Hepgul","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chron. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.16517","article-title":"Putative cut-points in sarcopenia components and incident adverse health outcomes: An SDOC analysis","volume":"68","author":"Cawthon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/61.1.72","article-title":"Strength, but not muscle mass, is associated with mortality in the health, aging and body composition study cohort","volume":"61","author":"Newman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glz229","article-title":"On the definition of sarcopenia in the presence of aging and obesity\u2014Initial results from UK Biobank","volume":"75","author":"Linge","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glaa111","article-title":"Muscle mass assessed by the D3-creatine dilution method and incident self-reported disability and mortality in a prospective observational study of community-dwelling older men","volume":"76","author":"Cawthon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_127","first-page":"16","article-title":"Writing group for the European Working group on sarcopenia in older people 2 (EWGSOP2), and the extended group for EWGSOP2. Sarcopenia: Revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis","volume":"48","author":"Bahat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2011.11.024","article-title":"Cachexia assessed by bio-impedance vector analysis as a prognostic indicator in chronic stable heart failure patients","volume":"28","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12159","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance analysis for diagnosing sarcopenia and cachexia: What are we really estimating?","volume":"8","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunha, G.J.L., Rocha, B.M.L., Freitas, P., Sousa, J.A., Paiva, M., Santos, A.C., Guerreiro, S., Tralh\u00e3o, A., Ventosa, A., and Aguiar, C.M. (2021). Pectoralis major muscle quantification by cardiac MRI is a strong predictor of major events in HF. Heart Vessel., 1\u201310.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00380-021-01996-8"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e010554","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.118.010554","article-title":"Axial muscle size as a strong predictor of death in subjects with and without heart failure","volume":"8","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"1","article-title":"The use of alternate vertebral levels to L3 in computed tomography scans for skeletal muscle mass evaluation and sarcopenia assessment in patients with cancer: A systematic review","volume":"127","author":"Vangelov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2014.02.008","article-title":"Reduced handgrip strength as a marker of frailty predicts clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure undergoing ventricular assist device placement","volume":"20","author":"Chung","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2016.03.025","article-title":"Scores of nutritional risk and parameters of nutritional status assessment as predictors of in-hospital mortality and readmissions in the general hospital population","volume":"35","author":"Budzynski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11897-019-00437-y","article-title":"Anabolism to catabolism: Serologic clues to nutritional status in heart failure","volume":"16","author":"Murphy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Heart Fail. Rep."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2034","DOI":"10.1161\/hc4201.097836","article-title":"Elevated circulating level of ghrelin in cachexia associated with chronic heart failure: Relationships between ghrelin and anabolic\/catabolic factors","volume":"104","author":"Nagaya","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2013.04.015","article-title":"Plasma adiponectin in heart failure with and without cachexia: Catabolic signal linking catabolism, symptomatic status, and prognosis","volume":"24","author":"Szabo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1973","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00200.2011","article-title":"Myostatin from the heart: Local and systemic actions in cardiac failure and muscle wasting","volume":"300","author":"Breitbart","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.2006.01718.x","article-title":"Myostatin expression in ventricular myocardium in a rat model of volume-overload heart failure","volume":"36","author":"Shyu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_140","first-page":"74","article-title":"Cardiac cachexia: Perspectives for prevention and treatment","volume":"108","author":"Okoshi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4019","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.33000","article-title":"New insights into the pathogenesis and treatment of sarcopenia in chronic heart failure","volume":"9","author":"Yin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamda.2013.05.021","article-title":"Evidence-based recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: A position paper from the PROT-AGE Study Group","volume":"14","author":"Bauer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"Gil, A. (2017). Nutricion e insuficiencia cardiaca. Tratado de Nutrici\u00f3n. Tomo 5: Nutricion y Enfermedad, Editorial Medica Panamericana. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2017.51","article-title":"Muscle wasting and cachexia in heart failure: Mechanisms and therapies","volume":"14","author":"Ebner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12176","article-title":"Dietary protein content for an optimal diet: A clinical view","volume":"8","author":"Santarpia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclnm.2009.05.008","article-title":"Basics in clinical nutrition: Enteral nutrition","volume":"4","author":"Howard","year":"2009","journal-title":"E-SPEN"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2016.05.011","article-title":"2016 ACC\/AHA\/HFSA focused update on new pharmacological therapy for heart failure: An update of the 2013 ACCF\/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: A report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Failure Society of America","volume":"68","author":"Yancy","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_148","unstructured":"Otten, J.J., Hellwig, J.P., and Meyers, L.D. (2006). Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14175","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70190-z","article-title":"Vitamin D ameliorates adipose browning in chronic kidney disease cachexia","volume":"10","author":"Cheung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_150","first-page":"1633","article-title":"Effects of a short-term vitamin D(3) and calcium supplementation on blood pressure and parathyroid hormone levels in elderly women","volume":"86","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2007.02360.x","article-title":"VitaminD improves endothelial function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and low vitamin D levels","volume":"25","author":"Sugden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diab. Med."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.4.754","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"83","author":"Schleithoff","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.109.907899","article-title":"The effects of vitamin D supplementation on physical function and quality of life in older patients with heart failure: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"3","author":"Witham","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2014.02.015","article-title":"Effects of six months of vitamin D supplementation in patients with heart failure: A randomized double-blind controlled trial","volume":"24","author":"Dalbeni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2016.03.508","article-title":"Effects of vitamin D on cardiac function in patients with chronic HF: The VINDICATE study","volume":"67","author":"Witte","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2279","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehx235","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D on all-cause mortality in heart failure (EVITA): A 3-year randomized clinical trial with 4000 IU vitamin D daily","volume":"38","author":"Zittermann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2019.01.027","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation of 4000 IU daily and cardiac function in patients with advanced heart failure: The EVITA trial","volume":"280","author":"Zittermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/73.2.219","article-title":"A controlled clinical trial of vitamin E supplementation in patients with congestive heart failure","volume":"73","author":"Keith","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5273(96)02787-8","article-title":"Oxy free radical system in heart failure and therapeutic role of oral vitamin E","volume":"57","author":"Ghatak","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9343(99)80349-0","article-title":"Improved left ventricular function after thiamine supplementation in patients with congestive heart failure receiving long-term furosemide therapy","volume":"98","author":"Shimon","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-011-0376-2","article-title":"Thiamine supplementation in symptomatic chronic heart failure: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over pilot study","volume":"101","author":"Schoenenberger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqz192","article-title":"Thiamin supplementation does not improve left ventricular ejection fraction in ambulatory heart failure patients: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"110","author":"Keith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-7843.2005.pto_146.x","article-title":"Reduction of homocysteine in elderly with heart failure improved vascular function and blood pressure control but did not affect inflammatory activity","volume":"97","author":"Andersson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2007.07.005","article-title":"Vitamin C restores the contractile response to dobutamine and improves myocardial efficiency in patients with heart failure after anterior myocardial infarction","volume":"154","author":"Shinke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1443-9506.2003.00189.x","article-title":"Randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of coenzyme Q, therapy in class II and III systolic heart failure","volume":"12","author":"Keogh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Heart Lung Circ."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.4960270512","article-title":"Coenzyme Q10 in patients with end-stage heart failure awaiting cardiac transplantation: A randomized, placebo-controlled study","volume":"27","author":"Berman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S134","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00226854","article-title":"Effect of coenzyme Q10 therapy in patients with congestive heart failure: A long-term multicenter randomized study","volume":"71","author":"Morisco","year":"1993","journal-title":"Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehu385","article-title":"CONFIRM-HF Investigators. Beneficial effects of long-term intravenous iron therapy with ferric carboxymaltose in patients with symptomatic heart failure and iron deficiency","volume":"36","author":"Ponikowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.5427","article-title":"NHLBI Heart Failure Clinical Research Network. Effect of oral iron repletion on exercise capacity in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction and iron deficiency: The IRONOUT HF randomized clinical trial","volume":"317","author":"Lewis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5273(00)00233-3","article-title":"The effect of salbutamol on skeletal muscle in chronic heart failure","volume":"73","author":"Harrington","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.328.7441.711-b","article-title":"Exercise training meta-analysis of trials in patients with chronic heart failure (ExTraMATCH)","volume":"328","author":"Piepoli","year":"2004","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.592","article-title":"Authors\/Task Force Members, Document Reviewers. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: The task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC","volume":"18","author":"Ponikowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1800389","article-title":"PREDIMED Study Investigators. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts","volume":"378","author":"Estruch","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3674","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000149746.62908.BB","article-title":"Effects of ghrelin administration on left ventricular function, exercise capacity, and muscle wasting in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"110","author":"Nagaya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/S1071-9164(03)00582-7","article-title":"Partial reversal of cachexia by beta-adrenergic receptor blocker therapy in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"9","author":"Hryniewicz","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2009.04.078","article-title":"Effect of long-acting testosterone treatment on functional exercise apacity, skeletal muscle performance, insulin resistance, and baroreflex sensitivity in elderly patients with chronic heart failure a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study","volume":"54","author":"Caminiti","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1964","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.123.6.1964","article-title":"Risk of mortality and heart failure exacerbations associated with inhaled beta-adrenoceptor agonists among patients with known left ventricular systolic dysfunction","volume":"123","author":"Au","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chest."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2005.01.061","article-title":"Body composition changes in patients with systolic heart failure treated with beta blockers: A pilot study","volume":"106","author":"Mitja","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healun.2008.01.013","article-title":"Clenbuterol increases lean muscle mass but not endurance in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"27","author":"Kamalakkannan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Heart Lung Transplant."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12191","article-title":"Effect of beta-adrenergic blockade with carvedilol on cachexia in severe chronic heart failure: Results from the COPERNICUS trial","volume":"8","author":"Clark","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2008.09.009","article-title":"Cardiac cachexia: A systematic overview","volume":"121","author":"Lainscak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-011-0051-5","article-title":"The role of insulin resistance in the development of muscle wasting during cancer cachexia","volume":"3","author":"Honors","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2021.119329","article-title":"Investigation into the role of anti-diabetic agents in cachexia associated with metastatic cancer","volume":"274","author":"Bora","year":"2021","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12833","article-title":"Metformin induces muscle atrophy by transcriptional regulation of myostatin via HDAC6 and FoxO3a","volume":"13","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/11\/6\/1039\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:39:24Z","timestamp":1760135964000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/11\/6\/1039"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]},"references-count":184,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["cells11061039"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells11061039","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]}}}