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This study investigates adaptive and pathological alterations in adipose and skeletal muscle tissue following cigarette smoke exposure using in vivo and in vitro models. Mice were exposed to cigarette smoke or air for 72 days and the pre-adipose cell line 3T3-L1 was utilized as an in vitro model. Cigarette smoke exposure decreased body weight, and the proportional loss in fat mass was more pronounced than the lean mass loss. Cigarette smoke exposure reduced adipocyte size and increased adipocyte numbers. Adipose macrophage numbers and associated cytokine levels, including interleukin-1\u03b2, interleukine-6 and tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 were elevated in smoke-exposed mice. Muscle strength and protein synthesis signaling were decreased after smoke exposure; however, muscle mass was not changed. In vitro studies demonstrated that lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation were upregulated in cigarette smoke-exposed pre-adipocytes. In conclusion, cigarette smoke exposure induces a loss of whole-body fat mass and adipose atrophy, which is likely due to enhanced lipolysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11182893","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,18]],"date-time":"2022-09-18T22:12:43Z","timestamp":1663539163000},"page":"2893","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Effects of Cigarette Smoke on Adipose and Skeletal Muscle Tissue: In Vivo and In Vitro Studies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Lei","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lieke E. 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