{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T01:18:43Z","timestamp":1780449523747,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,7]],"date-time":"2022-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine at The Chinese University of Hong Kong","award":["2019.047"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019.047"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Childhood asthma is a major chronic non-communicable disease in infants and children, often triggered by respiratory tract infections. The nasal cavity is a reservoir for a broad variety of commensal microbes and potential pathogens associated with respiratory illnesses including asthma. A healthy nasal microenvironment has protective effects against respiratory tract infections. The first microbial colonisation in the nasal region is initiated immediately after birth. Subsequently, colonisation by nasal microbiota during infancy plays important roles in rapidly establishing immune homeostasis and the development and maturation of the immune system. Dysbiosis of microbiota residing in the mucosal surfaces, such as the nasopharynx and guts, triggers immune modulation, severe infection, and exacerbation events. Nasal microbiome dysbiosis is related to the onset of symptomatic infections. Dynamic interactions between viral infections and the nasal microbiota in early life affect the later development of respiratory infections. In this review, we summarise the existing findings related to nasal microbiota colonisation, dynamic variations, and host\u2013microbiome interactions in childhood health and respiratory illness with a particular examination of asthma. We also discuss our current understanding of biases produced by environmental factors and technical concerns, the importance of standardised research methods, and microbiome modification for the prevention or treatment of childhood asthma. This review lays the groundwork for paying attention to an essential but less emphasized topic and improves the understanding of the overall composition, dynamic changes, and influence of the nasal microbiome associated with childhood asthma.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11193155","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]],"date-time":"2022-10-08T01:52:21Z","timestamp":1665193941000},"page":"3155","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Nasal Microbiome and Its Interaction with the Host in Childhood Asthma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Yao","family":"Zeng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, CUHK Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Centre for Gut Microbiota Research, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8496-3442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessie Qiaoyi","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, CUHK Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Centre for Gut Microbiota Research, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06245","article-title":"An ecological and evolutionary perspective on human-microbe mutualism and disease","volume":"449","author":"Dethlefsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumpitsch, C., Koskinen, K., Schopf, V., and Moissl-Eichinger, C. (2019). The microbiome of the upper respiratory tract in health and disease. BMC Biol., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-019-0703-z"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.2500\/ajr.2006.20.2854","article-title":"The effects of zinc on the olfactory neuroepithelium and olfactory bulbs of the Sprague-Dawley rat after oral administration of zinc-gluconate trihydrate","volume":"20","author":"Carboni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.14","article-title":"The microbiota of the respiratory tract: Gatekeeper to respiratory health","volume":"15","author":"Man","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.05.050","article-title":"Bacterial microbiota of the upper respiratory tract and childhood asthma","volume":"139","author":"Depner","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.05.044","article-title":"The airway microbiome in patients with severe asthma: Associations with disease features and severity","volume":"136","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0170-5","article-title":"Two sampling methods yield distinct microbial signatures in the nasopharynges of asthmatic children","volume":"4","author":"Crandall","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03280-13","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal microbiota in healthy children and pneumonia patients","volume":"52","author":"Sakwinska","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201302-0215OC","article-title":"Increased Risk of Pneumonia and Bronchiolitis after Bacterial Colonization of the Airways as Neonates","volume":"188","author":"Vissing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3562","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00767-12","article-title":"Microbiome diversity in the bronchial tracts of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"50","author":"Seto","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pragman, A.A., Kim, H.B., Reilly, C.S., Wendt, C., and Isaacson, R.E. (2012). The lung microbiome in moderate and severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0047305"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.14423\/SMJ.0000000000000622","article-title":"Risk Factors for Outpatient Use of Antibiotics in Children with Acute Respiratory Illnesses","volume":"110","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"South. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1007\/s11845-018-1774-5","article-title":"Antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infections (ARTI) in primary care; what factors affect prescribing and why is it important? A narrative review","volume":"187","author":"Dunne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ir. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.156.2.121","article-title":"Influence of attendance at day care on the common cold from birth through 13 years of age","volume":"156","author":"Ball","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.5334\/aogh.2416","article-title":"Pediatric Asthma: A Global Epidemic","volume":"85","author":"Serebrisky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-8603-9_1","article-title":"Introduction to asthma and phenotyping","volume":"795","author":"Pillai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2019.00499","article-title":"Genetics and Gene-Environment Interactions in Childhood and Adult Onset Asthma","volume":"7","author":"Morales","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2801","article-title":"The microbiology of asthma","volume":"10","author":"Edwards","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18634","article-title":"Human commensals producing a novel antibiotic impair pathogen colonization","volume":"535","author":"Zipperer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00245-10","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00245-10","article-title":"Microbial Communities of the Upper Respiratory Tract and Otitis Media in Children","volume":"2","author":"Laufer","year":"2011","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Price, L.B., Hungate, B.A., Koch, B.J., Davis, G.S., and Liu, C.M. (2017). Colonizing opportunistic pathogens (COPs): The beasts in all of us. PLoS Path., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006369"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30495-8","article-title":"The nasopharyngeal microbiome and LRTIs in infants","volume":"7","author":"Rogers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santacroce, L., Charitos, I.A., Ballini, A., Inchingolo, F., Luperto, P., De Nitto, E., and Topi, S. (2020). The Human Respiratory System and its Microbiome at a Glimpse. Biology, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology9100318"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11971","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002601107","article-title":"Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns","volume":"107","author":"Costello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-019-00775-y","article-title":"Dysbiosis of the gut and lung microbiome has a role in asthma","volume":"42","author":"Hufnagl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.12.1909","article-title":"Dynamics of the nasal microbiota in infancy: A prospective cohort study","volume":"135","author":"Mika","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-015-0663-y","article-title":"Minimally Invasive Sampling Method Identifies Differences in Taxonomic Richness of Nasal Microbiomes in Young Infants Associated with Mode of Delivery","volume":"71","author":"Shilts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2018.01.032","article-title":"Establishment of the nasal microbiota in the first 18 months of life: Correlation with early-onset rhinitis and wheezing","volume":"142","author":"Ta","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4142","article-title":"The microbiome in early life: Implications for health outcomes","volume":"22","author":"Tamburini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201302-0395LE","article-title":"Neonatal airway colonization is associated with troublesome lung symptoms in infants","volume":"188","author":"Schonning","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.5644\/ama2006-124.294","article-title":"The Airway Microbiome and Childhood Asthma\u2014What Is the Link?","volume":"49","author":"Dick","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Med. Acad."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thangaleela, S., Sivamaruthi, B.S., Kesika, P., Bharathi, M., and Chaiyasut, C. (2022). Nasal Microbiota, Olfactory Health, Neurological Disorders and Aging-A Review. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10071405"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.03.008","article-title":"The infant nasopharyngeal microbiome impacts severity of lower respiratory infection and risk of asthma development","volume":"17","author":"Teo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa052632","article-title":"Childhood asthma after bacterial colonization of the airway in neonates","volume":"357","author":"Bisgaard","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20200421","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2020-0421","article-title":"Longitudinal Changes in Early Nasal Microbiota and the Risk of Childhood Asthma","volume":"146","author":"Toivonen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.10.009","article-title":"Developmental patterns in the nasopharyngeal microbiome during infancy are associated with asthma risk","volume":"147","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201405-0901PP","article-title":"Toward Primary Prevention of Asthma Reviewing the Evidence for Early-Life Respiratory Viral Infections as Modifiable Risk Factors to Prevent Childhood Asthma","volume":"191","author":"Feldman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.10.049","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal Lactobacillus is associated with a reduced risk of childhood wheezing illnesses following acute respiratory syncytial virus infection in infancy","volume":"142","author":"Shilts","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.02.030","article-title":"Detection of pathogenic bacteria during rhinovirus infection is associated with increased respiratory symptoms and asthma exacerbations","volume":"133","author":"Kloepfer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201512-2350LE","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal Microbiome in Respiratory Syncytial Virus Resembles Profile Associated with Increased Childhood Asthma Risk","volume":"193","author":"Shilts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00312-16","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00312-16","article-title":"Interactions of Respiratory Viruses and the Nasal Microbiota during the First Year of Life in Healthy Infants","volume":"1","author":"Korten","year":"2016","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dimitri-Pinheiro, S., Soares, R., and Barata, P. (2020). The Microbiome of the Nose-Friend or Foe?. Allergy Rhinol., 11.","DOI":"10.1177\/2152656720911605"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schoos, A.M., Kragh, M., Ahrens, P., Kuhn, K.G., Rasmussen, M.A., Chawes, B.L., Jensen, J.S., Brix, S., Bisgaard, H., and Stokholm, J. (2020). Season of Birth Impacts the Neonatal Nasopharyngeal Microbiota. Children, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/children7050045"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.042929-0","article-title":"Colonization of healthy children by Moraxella catarrhalis is characterized by genotype heterogeneity, virulence gene diversity and co-colonization with Haemophilus influenzae","volume":"157","author":"Verhaegh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2022.01.020","article-title":"Seasonal airway microbiome and transcriptome interactions promote childhood asthma exacerbations","volume":"150","author":"McCauley","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201703-0554OC","article-title":"Maturation of the Infant Respiratory Microbiota, Environmental Drivers, and Health Consequences. A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"196","author":"Bosch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez-Losada, M., Alamri, L., Crandall, K.A., and Freishtat, R.J. (2017). Nasopharyngeal Microbiome Diversity Changes over Time in Children with Asthma. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0170543"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.08.005","article-title":"Airway Microbiota Dynamics Uncover a Critical Window for Interplay of Pathogenic Bacteria and Allergy in Childhood Respiratory Disease","volume":"24","author":"Teo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2014.250","article-title":"Culture and molecular-based profiles show shifts in bacterial communities of the upper respiratory tract that occur with age","volume":"9","author":"Stearns","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1038\/s41435-021-00126-8","article-title":"The aging gut microbiome and its impact on host immunity","volume":"22","author":"Bosco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genes Immun."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Sire, A., de Sire, R., Curci, C., Castiglione, F., and Wahli, W. (2022). Role of Dietary Supplements and Probiotics in Modulating Microbiota and Bone Health: The Gut-Bone Axis. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11040743"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0564-7","article-title":"Pediatric asthma comprises different phenotypic clusters with unique nasal microbiotas","volume":"6","author":"Authelet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/gm378","article-title":"Shifts in human skin and nares microbiota of healthy children and adults","volume":"4","author":"Oh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11053","article-title":"Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography","volume":"486","author":"Yatsunenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13331","article-title":"Different functional genes of upper airway microbiome associated with natural course of childhood asthma","volume":"73","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2019.05.035","article-title":"Distinct nasal airway bacterial microbiotas differentially relate to exacerbation in pediatric patients with asthma","volume":"144","author":"McCauley","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833726","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.833726","article-title":"Nasal Microbiome Change During and After Exacerbation in Asthmatic Children","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00129-22","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00129-22","article-title":"Temporal Dynamics of the Nasopharyngeal Microbiome and its Relationship with Childhood Asthma Exacerbation","volume":"10","author":"Hou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201207-1297OC","article-title":"Pathogenic bacteria colonizing the airways in asymptomatic neonates stimulates topical inflammatory mediator release","volume":"187","author":"Folsgaard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro-Nallar, E., Shen, Y., Freishtat, R.J., Perez-Losada, M., Manimaran, S., Liu, G., Johnson, W.E., and Crandall, K.A. (2015). Integrating microbial and host transcriptomics to characterize asthma-associated microbial communities. BMC Med. Genom., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12920-015-0121-1"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2842.2005.01553.x","article-title":"Effect of various implant coatings on biological responses in MG63 using cDNA microarray","volume":"33","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez-Losada, M., Castro-Nallar, E., Bendall, M.L., Freishtat, R.J., and Crandall, K.A. (2015). Dual Transcriptomic Profiling of Host and Microbiota during Health and Disease in Pediatric Asthma. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0131819"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terasjarvi, J.T., Toivonen, L., Vuononvirta, J., Mertsola, J., Peltola, V., and He, Q. (2020). TLR4 Polymorphism, Nasopharyngeal Bacterial Colonization, and the Development of Childhood Asthma: A Prospective Birth-Cohort Study in Finnish Children. Genes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes11070768"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ritchie, N.D., Ijaz, U.Z., and Evans, T.J. (2017). IL-17 signalling restructures the nasal microbiome and drives dynamic changes following Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization. BMC Genom., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-017-4215-3"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1038\/aps.2015.102","article-title":"Metabolic alterations in the sera of Chinese patients with mild persistent asthma: A GC-MS-based metabolomics analysis","volume":"36","author":"Chang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.06.025","article-title":"Perturbation of metabolic pathways mediates the association of air pollutants with asthma and cardiovascular diseases","volume":"119","author":"Jeong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2018.02.020","article-title":"The nasal microbiome in asthma","volume":"142","author":"Fazlollahi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13608","article-title":"Different upper airway microbiome and their functional genes associated with asthma in young adults and elderly individuals","volume":"74","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1546","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa262","article-title":"Antibiotic Treatments During Infancy, Changes in Nasal Microbiota, and Asthma Development: Population-based Cohort Study","volume":"72","author":"Toivonen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aller.2018.03.006","article-title":"Day-care center attendance and risk of Asthma-A systematic review","volume":"46","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106811","article-title":"Long-term biodiversity intervention shapes health-associated commensal microbiota among urban day-care children","volume":"157","author":"Roslund","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644836","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.644836","article-title":"Best Practices for Microbiome Study Design in Companion Animal Research","volume":"8","author":"Jarett","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11711","article-title":"Genomic variation landscape of the human gut microbiome","volume":"493","author":"Schloissnig","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alit.2021.08.010","article-title":"Regional differences in the incidence of asthma exacerbations in Japan: A heat map analysis of healthcare insurance claims data","volume":"71","author":"Yokoyama","year":"2022","journal-title":"Allergol. Int."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.3109\/02770901003686480","article-title":"Regional variation in asthma symptom prevalence in Latin American children","volume":"47","author":"Mallol","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Asthma"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01162","article-title":"Geography, Ethnicity or Subsistence-Specific Variations in Human Microbiome Composition and Diversity","volume":"8","author":"Gupta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.11.005","article-title":"Nasal microenvironments and interspecific interactions influence nasal microbiota complexity and S. aureus carriage","volume":"14","author":"Yan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2372","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02372","article-title":"Comparing the Healthy Nose and Nasopharynx Microbiota Reveals Continuity As Well As Niche-Specificity","volume":"8","author":"Wittouck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0385-0","article-title":"The association between anterior nares and nasopharyngeal microbiota in infants hospitalized for bronchiolitis","volume":"6","author":"Luna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16321","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-34294-x","article-title":"Impact of DNA extraction method and targeted 16S-rRNA hypervariable region on oral microbiota profiling","volume":"8","author":"Teng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.3934\/microbiol.2016.2.108","article-title":"Comparison of two commercial DNA extraction kits for the analysis of nasopharyngeal bacterial communities","volume":"2","author":"Crandall","year":"2016","journal-title":"AIMS Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Willner, D., Daly, J., Whiley, D., Grimwood, K., Wainwright, C.E., and Hugenholtz, P. (2012). Comparison of DNA extraction methods for microbial community profiling with an application to pediatric bronchoalveolar lavage samples. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034605"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17287","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53599-z","article-title":"Effects of sampling strategy and DNA extraction on human skin microbiome investigations","volume":"9","author":"Bjerre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00271-18","DOI":"10.1128\/mSystems.00271-18","article-title":"Impact of Preservation Method and 16S rRNA Hypervariable Region on Gut Microbiota Profiling","volume":"4","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2011.01.013","article-title":"Skin microbiome: Genomics-based insights into the diversity and role of skin microbes","volume":"17","author":"Kong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12034","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30515-5","article-title":"Analysis of sequencing strategies and tools for taxonomic annotation: Defining standards for progressive metagenomics","volume":"8","author":"Raggi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2020.01.005","article-title":"Computational methods for 16S metabarcoding studies using Nanopore sequencing data","volume":"18","author":"Santos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3010","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.03010","article-title":"Comparison of Mothur and QIIME for the Analysis of Rumen Microbiota Composition Based on 16S rRNA Amplicon Sequences","volume":"9","author":"Atxaerandio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prodan, A., Tremaroli, V., Brolin, H., Zwinderman, A.H., Nieuwdorp, M., and Levin, E. (2020). Comparing bioinformatic pipelines for microbial 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227434"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anai.2018.12.005","article-title":"The microbiome in asthma: Role in pathogenesis, phenotype, and response to treatment","volume":"122","author":"Kozik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2018.10.006","article-title":"Microbiome in Mechanisms of Asthma","volume":"40","author":"Carr","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Chest Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00859-21","DOI":"10.1128\/Spectrum.00859-21","article-title":"Adjunctive Probiotics Alleviates Asthmatic Symptoms via Modulating the Gut Microbiome and Serum Metabolome","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/S1081-1206(10)60219-0","article-title":"Probiotics for the treatment of allergic rhinitis and asthma: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials","volume":"101","author":"Vliagoftis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.08.020","article-title":"Prebiotic and probiotic supplementation prevents rhinovirus infections in preterm infants: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"133","author":"Luoto","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25006","article-title":"Corrigendum: A randomized synbiotic trial to prevent sepsis among infants in rural India","volume":"553","author":"Panigrahi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2014.08.001","article-title":"Effects of immunomodulatory supplementation with Lactobacillus rhamnosus on airway inflammation in a mouse asthma model","volume":"49","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.02.004","article-title":"Airway microbial dysbiosis in asthmatic patients: A target for prevention and treatment?","volume":"139","author":"Chung","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12253","article-title":"Low gut microbiota diversity in early infancy precedes asthma at school age","volume":"44","author":"Abrahamsson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.142","article-title":"Emerging pathogenic links between microbiota and the gut-lung axis","volume":"15","author":"Budden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2015-309728","article-title":"The gut microbiota plays a protective role in the host defence against pneumococcal pneumonia","volume":"65","author":"Schuijt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20180448","article-title":"The gut microbiome: Relationships with disease and opportunities for therapy","volume":"216","author":"Durack","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-00856-3","article-title":"Microbial metabolism of L-tyrosine protects against allergic airway inflammation","volume":"22","author":"Wypych","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2386","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.8946","article-title":"Nasal ACE2 Levels and COVID-19 in Children","volume":"323","author":"Patel","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rueca, M., Fontana, A., Bartolini, B., Piselli, P., Mazzarelli, A., Copetti, M., Binda, E., Perri, F., Gruber, C.E.M., and Nicastri, E. (2021). Investigation of Nasal\/Oropharyngeal Microbial Community of COVID-19 Patients by 16S rDNA Sequencing. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18042174"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1177\/19458924211027798","article-title":"Regulation of the Expression of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 in Nasal Mucosa","volume":"36","author":"Takabayashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Rhinol. Allergy"}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/11\/19\/3155\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:47:52Z","timestamp":1760143672000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/11\/19\/3155"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,7]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["cells11193155"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells11193155","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,7]]}}}