{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T22:18:27Z","timestamp":1792189107839,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]],"date-time":"2022-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute on Aging (NIA\/NIH)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is), such as empagliflozin, lower blood glucose in type 2 diabetes mellitus and improve cardiorenal outcomes regardless of diabetes presence. Whether SGLT2is exert any effects on the brain\u2019s metabolism has not been studied. We conducted a single-arm clinical trial to investigate the effects of once daily administration of oral empagliflozin (25 mg) for 14 days on systemic and brain metabolism in 21 non-diabetics aged 55 years old or older. Empagliflozin lowered circulating insulin and elevated \u03b2-hydroxybutyrate over 34-h periods, both following its first administration and after 14 days of daily administration, with minor alterations in glucose homeostasis. Levels of phosphorylated insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (pIGF-1R), phosphorylated insulin receptor (pIR), phosphorylated-in-tyrosine insulin receptor substrate-1 (pY-IRS-1), and phosphorylated protein kinase B or AKT (pAKT) were increased in extracellular vesicles enriched for neuronal origin (NEVs) following the first empagliflozin administration, but not after 14 days. Our finding of IGF-1R upregulation in NEVs is promising because several post-mortem and epidemiological studies support the idea that upregulation of IGF signaling may protect against Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD). Moreover, our finding showing activation of insulin signaling and, in particular, the canonical pathway (pIR, pY-IRS-1, pAKT) in NEVs is important because such changes have been repeatedly associated with neuronal survival. Using brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), we detected decreased concentrations of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate and its precursor glutamine after empagliflozin administration. This finding is also encouraging since glutamatergic excitotoxicity has long been implicated in AD pathology. Overall, our findings may motivate the repurposing of SGLT2is for use in AD and other, related diseases that are characterized by downregulation of IGF-1\/insulin signaling in neurons and excitotoxicity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11213372","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]],"date-time":"2022-10-25T12:29:45Z","timestamp":1666700985000},"page":"3372","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Empagliflozin Induced Ketosis, Upregulated IGF-1\/Insulin Receptors and the Canonical Insulin Signaling Pathway in Neurons, and Decreased the Excitatory Neurotransmitter Glutamate in the Brain of Non-Diabetics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5335-8346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos I.","family":"Avgerinos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0561-4402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roger J.","family":"Mullins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Vreones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0511-2047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maja","family":"Mustapic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4464-564X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qinghua","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Denise","family":"Melvin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2181-3118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Kapogiannis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Josephine M.","family":"Egan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2022, September 09). 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