{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T04:08:57Z","timestamp":1791864537186,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":185,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689552000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"NIH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UH3OD023285"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UH3OD023285"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"NIH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P42ES030991"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P42ES030991"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"NIH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P30ES020957"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30ES020957"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this review, advances in the understanding of epigenetic reprogramming from fertilization to the development of primordial germline cells in a mouse and human embryo are discussed. To gain insights into the molecular underpinnings of various diseases, it is essential to comprehend the intricate interplay between genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors during cellular reprogramming and embryonic differentiation. An increasing range of diseases, including cancer and developmental disorders, have been linked to alterations in DNA methylation and histone modifications. Global epigenetic reprogramming occurs in mammals at two stages: post-fertilization and during the development of primordial germ cells (PGC). Epigenetic reprogramming after fertilization involves rapid demethylation of the paternal genome mediated through active and passive DNA demethylation, and gradual demethylation in the maternal genome through passive DNA demethylation. The de novo DNA methyltransferase enzymes, Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b, restore DNA methylation beginning from the blastocyst stage until the formation of the gastrula, and DNA maintenance methyltransferase, Dnmt1, maintains methylation in the somatic cells. The PGC undergo a second round of global demethylation after allocation during the formative pluripotent stage before gastrulation, where the imprints and the methylation marks on the transposable elements known as retrotransposons, including long interspersed nuclear elements (LINE-1) and intracisternal A-particle (IAP) elements are demethylated as well. Finally, DNA methylation is restored in the PGC at the implantation stage including sex-specific imprints corresponding to the sex of the embryo. This review introduces a novel perspective by uncovering how toxicants and stress stimuli impact the critical period of allocation during formative pluripotency, potentially influencing both the quantity and quality of PGCs. Furthermore, the comprehensive comparison of epigenetic events between mice and humans breaks new ground, empowering researchers to make informed decisions regarding the suitability of mouse models for their experiments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12141874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,18]],"date-time":"2023-07-18T01:35:16Z","timestamp":1689644116000},"page":"1874","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":53,"title":["Epigenetic Reprogramming in Mice and Humans: From Fertilization to Primordial Germ Cell Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Aditi","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CS Mott Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"},{"name":"Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel A.","family":"Rappolee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CS Mott Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"},{"name":"Reproductive Stress Measurement, Mechanisms and Management, Corp., 135 Lake Shore Rd., Grosse Pointe Farms, MI 48236, USA"},{"name":"Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physiology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0070-437X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Douglas M.","family":"Ruden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CS Mott Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"},{"name":"Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"},{"name":"Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kobayashi, H., Sakurai, T., Imai, M., Takahashi, N., Fukuda, A., Yayoi, O., Sato, S., Nakabayashi, K., Hata, K., and Sotomaru, Y. (2012). Contribution of intragenic DNA methylation in mouse gametic DNA methylomes to establish oocyte-specific heritable marks. PLoS Genet., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1002440"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.864","article-title":"Dynamic CpG island methylation landscape in oocytes and preimplantation embryos","volume":"43","author":"Smallwood","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-015-0769-z","article-title":"Deep sequencing and de novo assembly of the mouse oocyte transcriptome define the contribution of transcription to the DNA methylation landscape","volume":"16","author":"Veselovska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.129.8.1807","article-title":"Erasing genomic imprinting memory in mouse clone embryos produced from day 11.5 primordial germ cells","volume":"129","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-genom-083118-015143","article-title":"Epigenetic Regulation and Risk Factors During the Development of Human Gametes and Early Embryos","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2950","article-title":"Active DNA demethylation: Many roads lead to Rome","volume":"11","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2204","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btl377","article-title":"Predicting methylation status of CpG islands in the human brain","volume":"22","author":"Fang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5237","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.10.5237","article-title":"Non-CpG methylation is prevalent in embryonic stem cells and may be mediated by DNA methyltransferase 3a","volume":"97","author":"Ramsahoye","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, M.D., Smiraglia, D.J., and Campbell, M.J. (2017). The Genomic Impact of DNA CpG Methylation on Gene Expression; Relationships in Prostate Cancer. Biomolecules, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom7010015"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.05.015","article-title":"The Transcriptome and DNA Methylome Landscapes of Human Primordial Germ Cells","volume":"161","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e76822","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.76822","article-title":"Potential role of KRAB-ZFP binding and transcriptional states on DNA methylation of retroelements in human male germ cells","volume":"11","author":"Fukuda","year":"2022","journal-title":"elife"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13619-020-00046-4","article-title":"Retrotransposons in pluripotent stem cells","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Regen."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.14.7.841","article-title":"The mouse homolog of Drosophila Vasa is required for the development of male germ cells","volume":"14","author":"Tanaka","year":"2000","journal-title":"Genes. Dev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-214-8_1","article-title":"The development of germline stem cells in Drosophila","volume":"450","author":"Dansereau","year":"2008","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7489","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000007489","article-title":"VASA mRNA (DDX4) detection is more specific than immunohistochemistry using poly- or monoclonal antibodies for germ cells in the male urogenital tract","volume":"96","author":"Boellaard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.234294.113","article-title":"DNA methylation dynamics during epigenetic reprogramming in the germline and preimplantation embryos","volume":"28","author":"Messerschmidt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genes. Dev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1063443","article-title":"Epigenetic reprogramming in mammalian development","volume":"293","author":"Reik","year":"2001","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1006\/dbio.2001.0501","article-title":"Dynamic reprogramming of DNA methylation in the early mouse embryo","volume":"241","author":"Santos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10443","article-title":"The role of Tet3 DNA dioxygenase in epigenetic reprogramming by oocytes","volume":"477","author":"Gu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2010.07.002","article-title":"Physiological and biochemical aspects of hydroxylations and demethylations catalyzed by human 2-oxoglutarate oxygenases","volume":"36","author":"Loenarz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12052","article-title":"Modulation of TET2 expression and 5-methylcytosine oxidation by the CXXC domain protein IDAX","volume":"497","author":"Ko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.11.014","article-title":"Tet3 CXXC domain and dioxygenase activity cooperatively regulate key genes for Xenopus eye and neural development","volume":"151","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bortvin, A., Goodheart, M., Liao, M., and Page, D.C. (2004). Dppa3\/Pgc7\/stella is a maternal factor and is not required for germ cell specification in mice. BMC Dev. Biol., 4.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-213X-4-2"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4292","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06230-0","article-title":"Tracing the transitions from pluripotency to germ cell fate with CRISPR screening","volume":"9","author":"Hackett","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11093","article-title":"PGC7 binds histone H3K9me2 to protect against conversion of 5mC to 5hmC in early embryos","volume":"486","author":"Nakamura","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1093\/molehr\/gau049","article-title":"Dynamic regulation of DNA methyltransferases in human oocytes and preimplantation embryos after assisted reproductive technologies","volume":"20","author":"Petrussa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-019-0159-6","article-title":"The diverse roles of DNA methylation in mammalian development and disease","volume":"20","author":"Greenberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10960","article-title":"A unique regulatory phase of DNA methylation in the early mammalian embryo","volume":"484","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1825-8","article-title":"Multi-omics profiling of mouse gastrulation at single-cell resolution","volume":"576","author":"Argelaguet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dev183129","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.183129","article-title":"The roles of TET family proteins in development and stem cells","volume":"147","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2011.07.010","article-title":"Tet1 is dispensable for maintaining pluripotency and its loss is compatible with embryonic and postnatal development","volume":"9","author":"Dawlaty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10343","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-67143-x","article-title":"TET1 Deficiency Impairs Morphogen-free Differentiation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells to Neuroectoderm","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2012.12.015","article-title":"Combined deficiency of Tet1 and Tet2 causes epigenetic abnormalities but is compatible with postnatal development","volume":"24","author":"Dawlaty","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabm3470","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abm3470","article-title":"Tet-mediated DNA demethylation regulates specification of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells during mammalian embryogenesis","volume":"8","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-022-00917-0","article-title":"The balance between NANOG and SOX17 mediated by TET proteins regulates specification of human primordial germ cell fate","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Biosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.142679","article-title":"Formative pluripotency: The executive phase in a developmental continuum","volume":"144","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3153","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16919-w","article-title":"Genome-wide analysis in the mouse embryo reveals the importance of DNA methylation for transcription integrity","volume":"11","author":"Dahlet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25477","article-title":"Structural basis for DNMT3A-mediated de novo DNA methylation","volume":"554","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1038\/embor.2009.218","article-title":"Structural basis for recognition of H3K4 methylation status by the DNA methyltransferase 3A ATRX-DNMT3-DNMT3L domain","volume":"10","author":"Otani","year":"2009","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1147939","article-title":"UHRF1 plays a role in maintaining DNA methylation in mammalian cells","volume":"317","author":"Bostick","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(01)00280-X","article-title":"Genomic imprinting disrupted by a maternal effect mutation in the Dnmt1 gene","volume":"104","author":"Howell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a019133","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a019133","article-title":"DNA methylation in mammals","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/77023","article-title":"DNMT1 binds HDAC2 and a new co-repressor, DMAP1, to form a complex at replication foci","volume":"25","author":"Rountree","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1996","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5334.1996","article-title":"Human DNA-(cytosine-5) methyltransferase-PCNA complex as a target for p21WAF1","volume":"277","author":"Chuang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2017.09.037","article-title":"Structure of the Dnmt1 Reader Module Complexed with a Unique Two-Mono-Ubiquitin Mark on Histone H3 Reveals the Basis for DNA Methylation Maintenance","volume":"68","author":"Ishiyama","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9055","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1019629108","article-title":"Structural insight into maintenance methylation by mouse DNA methyltransferase 1 (Dnmt1)","volume":"108","author":"Takeshita","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1195380","article-title":"Structure of DNMT1-DNA complex reveals a role for autoinhibition in maintenance DNA methylation","volume":"331","author":"Song","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19466","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA118.004612","article-title":"BAH domains and a histone-like motif in DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) regulate de novo and maintenance methylation in vivo","volume":"293","author":"Yarychkivska","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crmeth.2022.100187","article-title":"A comprehensive approach for genome-wide efficiency profiling of DNA modifying enzymes","volume":"2","author":"Kyriakopoulos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Methods"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2020.11.005","article-title":"Capture of Mouse and Human Stem Cells with Features of Formative Pluripotency","volume":"28","author":"Kinoshita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.03.014","article-title":"A signaling principle for the specification of the germ cell lineage in mice","volume":"137","author":"Ohinata","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03356-y","article-title":"Blastocyst-like structures generated from human pluripotent stem cells","volume":"591","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1989.tb08392.x","article-title":"A family of octamer-specific proteins present during mouse embryogenesis: Evidence for germline-specific expression of an Oct factor","volume":"8","author":"Scholer","year":"1989","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400279","article-title":"Oct4 is required for primordial germ cell survival","volume":"5","author":"Kehler","year":"2004","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"68","article-title":"Clonal analysis of the origin of primordial germ cells in the mouse","volume":"182","author":"Lawson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ciba Found. Symp."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.128.4.481","article-title":"Stage-specific tissue and cell interactions play key roles in mouse germ cell specification","volume":"128","author":"Yoshimizu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05950","article-title":"Derivation of pluripotent epiblast stem cells from mammalian embryos","volume":"448","author":"Brons","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.030957","article-title":"Klf4 reverts developmentally programmed restriction of ground state pluripotency","volume":"136","author":"Guo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.06.052","article-title":"Reconstitution of the mouse germ cell specification pathway in culture by pluripotent stem cells","volume":"146","author":"Hayashi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13249","article-title":"Mononuclear phagocyte regulation by the transcription factor Blimp-1 in health and disease","volume":"161","author":"Ulmert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03813","article-title":"Blimp1 is a critical determinant of the germ cell lineage in mice","volume":"436","author":"Ohinata","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09531","article-title":"A genome-wide RNAi screen reveals determinants of human embryonic stem cell identity","volume":"468","author":"Chia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durcova-Hills, G., Tang, F., Doody, G., Tooze, R., and Surani, M.A. (2008). Reprogramming primordial germ cells into pluripotent stem cells. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0003531"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2279","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.050427","article-title":"Embryonic germ cells from mice and rats exhibit properties consistent with a generic pluripotent ground state","volume":"137","author":"Leitch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb2798","article-title":"A tripartite transcription factor network regulates primordial germ cell specification in mice","volume":"15","author":"Magnusdottir","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.085290","article-title":"Otx2 is an intrinsic determinant of the embryonic stem cell state and is required for transition to a stable epiblast stem cell condition","volume":"140","author":"Acampora","year":"2013","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scr.2017.07.017","article-title":"A pilgrim\u2019s progress: Seeking meaning in primordial germ cell migration","volume":"24","author":"Cantu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2019.11.015","article-title":"Germ cell migration-Evolutionary issues and current understanding","volume":"100","author":"Grimaldi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2016.07.007","article-title":"Finding their way: Themes in germ cell migration","volume":"42","author":"Barton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2295","article-title":"Epigenetic events in mammalian germ-cell development: Reprogramming and beyond","volume":"9","author":"Sasaki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1187945","article-title":"Genome-wide reprogramming in the mouse germ line entails the base excision repair pathway","volume":"329","author":"Hajkova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Napoles, M., Nesterova, T., and Brockdorff, N. (2007). Early loss of Xist RNA expression and inactive X chromosome associated chromatin modification in developing primordial germ cells. PLoS ONE, 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0000860"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sugimoto, M., and Abe, K. (2007). X chromosome reactivation initiates in nascent primordial germ cells in mice. PLoS Genet., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.0030116"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02222","article-title":"Inheritance of a pre-inactivated paternal X chromosome in early mouse embryos","volume":"426","author":"Huynh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092674","article-title":"Reactivation of the paternal X chromosome in early mouse embryos","volume":"303","author":"Mak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092727","article-title":"Epigenetic dynamics of imprinted X inactivation during early mouse development","volume":"303","author":"Okamoto","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3187","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.00227-10","article-title":"Two-step imprinted X inactivation: Repeat versus genic silencing in the mouse","volume":"30","author":"Namekawa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08161","article-title":"Evidence of Xist RNA-independent initiation of mouse imprinted X-chromosome inactivation","volume":"460","author":"Kalantry","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.056606","article-title":"Choice of random rather than imprinted X inactivation in female embryonic stem cell-derived extra-embryonic cells","volume":"138","author":"Murakami","year":"2011","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1002\/wrna.1359","article-title":"Function and evolution of the long noncoding RNA circuitry orchestrating X-chromosome inactivation in mammals","volume":"7","author":"Furlan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. RNA"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2016.04.002","article-title":"The \u201clnc\u201d between 3D chromatin structure and X chromosome inactivation","volume":"56","author":"Plath","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2016.01.044","article-title":"Have humans lost control: The elusive X-controlling element","volume":"56","author":"Peeters","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2016.03.023","article-title":"A Tale of Two Cities: How Xist and its partners localize to and silence the bicompartmental X","volume":"56","author":"Pinter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.201600121","article-title":"Establishment of X chromosome inactivation and epigenomic features of the inactive X depend on cellular contexts","volume":"38","author":"Vallot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioessays"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gde.2012.02.007","article-title":"New and Xisting regulatory mechanisms of X chromosome inactivation","volume":"22","author":"Jeon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-biochem-062917-012655","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms of Facultative Heterochromatin Formation: An X-Chromosome Perspective","volume":"89","author":"Zylicz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-1974-9","article-title":"SPEN integrates transcriptional and epigenetic control of X-inactivation","volume":"578","author":"Dossin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14443","article-title":"The Xist lncRNA interacts directly with SHARP to silence transcription through HDAC3","volume":"521","author":"McHugh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.11.041","article-title":"The Implication of Early Chromatin Changes in X Chromosome Inactivation","volume":"176","author":"Zylicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e48019","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.201948019","article-title":"The role of Xist-mediated Polycomb recruitment in the initiation of X-chromosome inactivation","volume":"20","author":"Bousard","year":"2019","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2019.01.015","article-title":"Xist Deletional Analysis Reveals an Interdependency between Xist RNA and Polycomb Complexes for Spreading along the Inactive X","volume":"74","author":"Colognori","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3129","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11171-3","article-title":"Systematic allelic analysis defines the interplay of key pathways in X chromosome inactivation","volume":"10","author":"Nesterova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2004.10.005","article-title":"Polycomb group proteins Ring1A\/B link ubiquitylation of histone H2A to heritable gene silencing and X inactivation","volume":"7","author":"Mermoud","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1084274","article-title":"Role of histone H3 lysine 27 methylation in X inactivation","volume":"300","author":"Plath","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/S1534-5807(03)00068-6","article-title":"Establishment of histone h3 methylation on the inactive X chromosome requires transient recruitment of Eed-Enx1 polycomb group complexes","volume":"4","author":"Silva","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.05.004","article-title":"Variant PRC1 complex-dependent H2A ubiquitylation drives PRC2 recruitment and polycomb domain formation","volume":"157","author":"Blackledge","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb1351","article-title":"The Polycomb group protein Eed protects the inactive X-chromosome from differentiation-induced reactivation","volume":"8","author":"Kalantry","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e51989","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.202051989","article-title":"H4K20me1 and H3K27me3 are concurrently loaded onto the inactive X chromosome but dispensable for inducing gene silencing","volume":"22","author":"Tjalsma","year":"2021","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2012.07.010","article-title":"Protection against de novo methylation is instrumental in maintaining parent-of-origin methylation inherited from the gametes","volume":"47","author":"Proudhon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.12.035","article-title":"Base-resolution analyses of sequence and parent-of-origin dependent DNA methylation in the mouse genome","volume":"148","author":"Xie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-015-0467-3","article-title":"The non-coding RNAs of the H19-IGF2 imprinted loci: A focus on biological roles and therapeutic potential in Lung Cancer","volume":"13","author":"Matouk","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-015-0143-8","article-title":"Imprinting disorders: A group of congenital disorders with overlapping patterns of molecular changes affecting imprinted loci","volume":"7","author":"Eggermann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-022-01410-8","article-title":"Maintenance of methylation profile in imprinting control regions in human induced pluripotent stem cells","volume":"14","author":"Pham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1080\/15592294.2022.2091815","article-title":"Genomic map of candidate human imprint control regions: The imprintome","volume":"17","author":"Jima","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2014-204781","article-title":"Epigenetic regulation of Newborns\u2019 imprinted genes related to gestational growth: Patterning by parental race\/ethnicity and maternal socioeconomic status","volume":"69","author":"King","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.4137\/GEG.S18067","article-title":"Maternal stress, preterm birth, and DNA methylation at imprint regulatory sequences in humans","volume":"6","author":"Vidal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genet. Epigenet"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17046","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0806560105","article-title":"Persistent epigenetic differences associated with prenatal exposure to famine in humans","volume":"105","author":"Heijmans","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.2337\/dc06-0460","article-title":"Impaired insulin secretion after prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine","volume":"29","author":"Painter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.08.033","article-title":"SnapShot: Imprinted gene clusters","volume":"130","author":"Thorvaldsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1080\/10590500600936474","article-title":"Endocrine disrupting chemicals: Human exposure and health risks","volume":"24","author":"Yang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1097\/CCO.0000000000000814","article-title":"Transcriptional and epigenetic control of early life cell fate decisions","volume":"34","author":"Boskovic","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg3354","article-title":"DNA methylation: Roles in mammalian development","volume":"14","author":"Smith","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robles-Matos, N., Artis, T., Simmons, R.A., and Bartolomei, M.S. (2021). Environmental Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Influences Genomic Imprinting, Growth, and Metabolism. Genes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes12081153"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3380","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.07-8229com","article-title":"Diet-induced hypermethylation at agouti viable yellow is not inherited transgenerationally through the female","volume":"21","author":"Waterland","year":"2007","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1220230110","article-title":"Maternal exposure to bisphenol A and genistein has minimal effect on A(vy)\/a offspring coat color but favors birth of agouti over nonagouti mice","volume":"110","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2009.10.004","article-title":"Perinatal exposure of rats to Bisphenol A affects the fertility of male offspring","volume":"85","author":"Salian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dev189217","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.189217","article-title":"Mammalian primordial germ cell specification","volume":"148","author":"Hancock","year":"2021","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-416027-9.00005-X","article-title":"Primordial germ-cell development and epigenetic reprogramming in mammals","volume":"104","author":"Leitch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2266","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2011.0042","article-title":"Epigenetic reprogramming in the germline: Towards the ground state of the epigenome","volume":"366","author":"Hajkova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06714","article-title":"Chromatin dynamics during epigenetic reprogramming in the mouse germ line","volume":"452","author":"Hajkova","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ydbio.2004.11.025","article-title":"Extensive and orderly reprogramming of genome-wide chromatin modifications associated with specification and early development of germ cells in mice","volume":"278","author":"Seki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2013.04.032","article-title":"Bivalent chromatin marks developmental regulatory genes in the mouse embryonic germline in vivo","volume":"3","author":"Sachs","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.130997.111","article-title":"Global profiling of DNA methylation erasure in mouse primordial germ cells","volume":"22","author":"Guibert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2015.03.002","article-title":"Quantitative Dynamics of Chromatin Remodeling during Germ Cell Specification from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells","volume":"16","author":"Kurimoto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2892","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.093229","article-title":"A replication-dependent passive mechanism modulates DNA demethylation in mouse primordial germ cells","volume":"140","author":"Ohno","year":"2013","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2012.11.001","article-title":"The dynamics of genome-wide DNA methylation reprogramming in mouse primordial germ cells","volume":"48","author":"Seisenberger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-8935-8-1","article-title":"Selective impairment of methylation maintenance is the major cause of DNA methylation reprogramming in the early embryo","volume":"8","author":"Arand","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epigenetics Chromatin"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2016.07.019","article-title":"Stage-Specific Demethylation in Primordial Germ Cells Safeguards against Precocious Differentiation","volume":"39","author":"Taylor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1229277","article-title":"Germline DNA demethylation dynamics and imprint erasure through 5-hydroxymethylcytosine","volume":"339","author":"Hackett","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2013.22","article-title":"Dynamics of 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine during germ cell reprogramming","volume":"23","author":"Yamaguchi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12805","article-title":"Role of Tet1 in erasure of genomic imprinting","volume":"504","author":"Yamaguchi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11709","article-title":"Tet1 controls meiosis by regulating meiotic gene expression","volume":"492","author":"Yamaguchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manikkam, M., Guerrero-Bosagna, C., Tracey, R., Haque, M.M., and Skinner, M.K. (2012). Transgenerational actions of environmental compounds on reproductive disease and identification of epigenetic biomarkers of ancestral exposures. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0031901"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.02.016","article-title":"Epigenetic Mechanisms of Transmission of Metabolic Disease across Generations","volume":"25","author":"Sales","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.101907.109","article-title":"Dynamic changes in the human methylome during differentiation","volume":"20","author":"Laurent","year":"2010","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08514","article-title":"Human DNA methylomes at base resolution show widespread epigenomic differences","volume":"462","author":"Lister","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1663","article-title":"Global hypomethylation of the genome in XX embryonic stem cells","volume":"37","author":"Zvetkova","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237905","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1237905","article-title":"Global epigenomic reconfiguration during mammalian brain development","volume":"341","author":"Lister","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3607","article-title":"Distribution, recognition and regulation of non-CpG methylation in the adult mammalian brain","volume":"17","author":"Guo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.147942.112","article-title":"Dynamic DNA methylation across diverse human cell lines and tissues","volume":"23","author":"Varley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arand, J., Spieler, D., Karius, T., Branco, M.R., Meilinger, D., Meissner, A., Jenuwein, T., Xu, G., Leonhardt, H., and Wolf, V. (2012). In vivo control of CpG and non-CpG DNA methylation by DNA methyltransferases. PLoS Genet., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1002750"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41021-022-00257-y","article-title":"Non-CpG sites preference in G:C > A:T transition of TP53 in gastric cancer of Eastern Europe (Poland, Romania and Hungary) compared to East Asian countries (China and Japan)","volume":"45","author":"Natsume","year":"2023","journal-title":"Genes. Environ."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fedotova, E.Y., Iakovenko, E.V., Abramycheva, N.Y., and Illarioshkin, S.N. (2023). SNCA Gene Methylation in Parkinson\u2019s Disease and Multiple System Atrophy. Epigenomes, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/epigenomes7010005"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.05.039","article-title":"Forget the Parents: Epigenetic Reprogramming in Human Germ Cells","volume":"161","author":"Reik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4525-4_13","article-title":"The role of DNA methylation and histone modifications in transcriptional regulation in humans","volume":"61","author":"Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Subcell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557934","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2021.557934","article-title":"The Epigenetics of Gametes and Early Embryos and Potential Long-Range Consequences in Livestock Species-Filling in the Picture With Epigenomic Analyses","volume":"12","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2023.02.007","article-title":"Diverse heterochromatin states restricting cell identity and reprogramming","volume":"48","author":"McCarthy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s12610-022-00179-3","article-title":"Epigenetic markers in the embryonal germ cell development and spermatogenesis","volume":"33","author":"Odroniec","year":"2023","journal-title":"Basic. Clin. Androl."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1071\/RD06125","article-title":"Stem cells and lineage development in the mammalian blastocyst","volume":"19","author":"Rossant","year":"2007","journal-title":"Reprod. Fertil. Dev."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.01715","article-title":"Imprinted X-inactivation in extra-embryonic endoderm cell lines from mouse blastocysts","volume":"132","author":"Kunath","year":"2005","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_151","first-page":"127","article-title":"Preferential paternal X inactivation in extraembryonic tissues of early mouse embryos","volume":"67","author":"Harper","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1038\/ng0395-316","article-title":"Methylation of the mouse Xist gene in sperm and eggs correlates with imprinted Xist expression and paternal X-inactivation","volume":"9","author":"Zuccotti","year":"1995","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1038\/262580a0","article-title":"Non-random inactivation of X chromosome in the rat yolk sac","volume":"262","author":"Wake","year":"1976","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1038\/256640a0","article-title":"Preferential inactivation of the paternally derived X chromosome in the extraembryonic membranes of the mouse","volume":"256","author":"Takagi","year":"1975","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/S0955-0674(00)00272-6","article-title":"Imprinted X inactivation in eutherians: A model of gametic execution and zygotic relaxation","volume":"13","author":"Huynh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg1604","article-title":"X-chromosome inactivation: A hypothesis linking ontogeny and phylogeny","volume":"6","author":"Huynh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.138487.112","article-title":"Random X inactivation in the mule and horse placenta","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1136\/jmg.33.7.529","article-title":"Confined placental mosaicism","volume":"33","author":"Kalousek","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Med. Genet."},{"key":"ref_159","first-page":"93","article-title":"Confined placental mosaicism and uniparental disomy","volume":"4","author":"Kalousek","year":"1994","journal-title":"Funct. Dev. Morphol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toutain, J., Goutte-Gattat, D., Horovitz, J., and Saura, R. (2018). Confined placental mosaicism revisited: Impact on pregnancy characteristics and outcome. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0195905"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.107877","article-title":"The Zscan4-Tet2 Transcription Nexus Regulates Metabolic Rewiring and Enhances Proteostasis to Promote Reprogramming","volume":"32","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.05.039","article-title":"Integrated Molecular Characterization of Testicular Germ Cell Tumors","volume":"23","author":"Shen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2016.128","article-title":"DNA methylation and chromatin accessibility profiling of mouse and human fetal germ cells","volume":"27","author":"Guo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.08.016","article-title":"Sperm methylation profiles reveal features of epigenetic inheritance and evolution in primates","volume":"146","author":"Molaro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmk001","article-title":"Spermatogonial stem cells: Questions, models and perspectives","volume":"12","author":"Ehmcke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okae, H., Chiba, H., Hiura, H., Hamada, H., Sato, A., Utsunomiya, T., Kikuchi, H., Yoshida, H., Tanaka, A., and Suyama, M. (2014). Genome-wide analysis of DNA methylation dynamics during early human development. PLoS Genet., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1004868"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2536","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1065848","article-title":"Dnmt3L and the establishment of maternal genomic imprints","volume":"294","author":"Xu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.4161\/epi.6.11.17993","article-title":"DNA methylation imprinting marks and DNA methyltransferase expression in human spermatogenic cell stages","volume":"6","author":"Marques","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1038\/nsmb.1821","article-title":"Repressive and active histone methylation mark distinct promoters in human and mouse spermatozoa","volume":"17","author":"Brykczynska","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08162","article-title":"Distinctive chromatin in human sperm packages genes for embryo development","volume":"460","author":"Hammoud","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1006\/dbio.1996.8466","article-title":"Regulation of transcriptional activity during the first and second cell cycles in the preimplantation mouse embryo","volume":"181","author":"Aoki","year":"1997","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1038\/332459a0","article-title":"Human gene expression first occurs between the four- and eight-cell stages of preimplantation development","volume":"332","author":"Braude","year":"1988","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/nature19360","article-title":"Broad histone H3K4me3 domains in mouse oocytes modulate maternal-to-zygotic transition","volume":"537","author":"Dahl","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E27","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0267-z","article-title":"Publisher Correction: Chromatin analysis in human early development reveals epigenetic transition during ZGA","volume":"560","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, L., Cai, J.Y., Ma, J., Huang, Z., Guo, M.X., Fu, L.Z., Shi, Y.B., and Li, W.X. (2013). Global expression profiling reveals genetic programs underlying the developmental divergence between mouse and human embryogenesis. BMC Genomics, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-14-568"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb3296","article-title":"De novo DNA methylation drives 5hmC accumulation in mouse zygotes","volume":"18","author":"Amouroux","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-017-0007-6","article-title":"Single-cell DNA methylome sequencing of human preimplantation embryos","volume":"50","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmy021","article-title":"Epigenetic regulation in development: Is the mouse a good model for the human?","volume":"24","author":"Hanna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.198291.115","article-title":"EHMT2 directs DNA methylation for efficient gene silencing in mouse embryos","volume":"26","author":"Auclair","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25125","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.25125","article-title":"Mapping the mouse Allelome reveals tissue-specific regulation of allelic expression","volume":"6","author":"Andergassen","year":"2017","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2017.01.028","article-title":"Detection of Imprinted Genes by Single-Cell Allele-Specific Gene Expression","volume":"100","author":"Santoni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3274","article-title":"Genetic conflict reflected in tissue-specific maps of genomic imprinting in human and mouse","volume":"47","author":"Babak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2011.08.032","article-title":"In embryonic stem cells, ZFP57\/KAP1 recognize a methylated hexanucleotide to affect chromatin and DNA methylation of imprinting control regions","volume":"44","author":"Quenneville","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1038\/nature23262","article-title":"Maternal H3K27me3 controls DNA methylation-independent imprinting","volume":"547","author":"Inoue","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2016.08.021","article-title":"Allele-Specific Methylome and Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Widespread Imprinting in the Human Placenta","volume":"99","author":"Hamada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/12\/14\/1874\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:13:31Z","timestamp":1760127211000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/12\/14\/1874"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]},"references-count":185,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["cells12141874"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells12141874","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]}}}