{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T19:47:39Z","timestamp":1790711259004,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":172,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,14]],"date-time":"2023-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694649600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Pet Trust Foundation","award":["054725"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["054725"]}]},{"name":"Pet Trust Foundation","award":["055676"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["055676"]}]},{"name":"Pet Trust Foundation","award":["056009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["056009"]}]},{"name":"Pet Trust Foundation","award":["436264"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["436264"]}]},{"name":"Pet Trust Foundation","award":["705965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["705965"]}]},{"name":"Pet Trust Foundation","award":["160399"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["160399"]}]},{"name":"Pet Trust Foundation","award":["843296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["843296"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Gran","award":["054725"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["054725"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Gran","award":["055676"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["055676"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Gran","award":["056009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["056009"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Gran","award":["436264"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["436264"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Gran","award":["705965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["705965"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Gran","award":["160399"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["160399"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Gran","award":["843296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["843296"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute","award":["054725"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["054725"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute","award":["055676"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["055676"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute","award":["056009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["056009"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute","award":["436264"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["436264"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute","award":["705965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["705965"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute","award":["160399"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["160399"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute","award":["843296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["843296"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research\u2014Institute of Cancer Research","award":["054725"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["054725"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research\u2014Institute of Cancer Research","award":["055676"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["055676"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research\u2014Institute of Cancer Research","award":["056009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["056009"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research\u2014Institute of Cancer Research","award":["436264"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["436264"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research\u2014Institute of Cancer Research","award":["705965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["705965"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research\u2014Institute of Cancer Research","award":["160399"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["160399"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research\u2014Institute of Cancer Research","award":["843296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["843296"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research Society","award":["054725"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["054725"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research Society","award":["055676"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["055676"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research Society","award":["056009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["056009"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research Society","award":["436264"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["436264"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research Society","award":["705965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["705965"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research Society","award":["160399"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["160399"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research Society","award":["843296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["843296"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mast cells (MCs) are abundant at sites exposed to the external environment and pathogens. Local activation of these cells, either directly via pathogen recognition or indirectly via interaction with other activated immune cells and results in the release of pre-stored mediators in MC granules. The release of these pre-stored mediators helps to enhance pathogen clearance. While MCs are well known for their protective role against parasites, there is also significant evidence in the literature demonstrating their ability to respond to viral, bacterial, and fungal infections. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin and hormone that plays a vital role in regulating calcium and phosphorus metabolism to maintain skeletal homeostasis. Emerging evidence suggests that vitamin D also has immunomodulatory properties on both the innate and adaptive immune systems, making it a critical regulator of immune homeostasis. Vitamin D binds to its receptor, called the vitamin D receptor (VDR), which is present in almost all immune system cells. The literature suggests that a vitamin D deficiency can activate MCs, and vitamin D is necessary for MC stabilization. This manuscript explores the potential of vitamin D to regulate MC activity and combat pathogens, with a focus on its ability to fight viruses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12182271","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,14]],"date-time":"2023-09-14T10:00:23Z","timestamp":1694685623000},"page":"2271","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Vitamin D Influences the Activity of Mast Cells in Allergic Manifestations and Potentiates Their Effector Functions against Pathogens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3132-9795","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yeganeh","family":"Mehrani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad 91779-48974, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6269-1228","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Solmaz","family":"Morovati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biotechnology, Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz 71557-13876, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophie","family":"Tieu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9951-9651","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Negar","family":"Karimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad 91779-48974, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helia","family":"Javadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sierra","family":"Vanderkamp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Soroush","family":"Sarmadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran 14174-66191, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tahmineh","family":"Tajik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad 91779-48974, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0156-5081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia E.","family":"Kakish","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8335-1118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Byram W.","family":"Bridle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7245-5851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalil","family":"Karimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-016-9404-x","article-title":"Vitamin D: Musculoskeletal health","volume":"18","author":"Bhattoa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bellan, M., Andreoli, L., Mele, C., Sainaghi, P.P., Rigamonti, C., Piantoni, S., De Benedittis, C., Aimaretti, G., Pirisi, M., and Marzullo, P. (2020). Pathophysiological Role and Therapeutic Implications of Vitamin D in Autoimmunity: Focus on Chronic Autoimmune Diseases. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12030789"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"33","article-title":"Impact of Vitamin D on mast cell activity, immunity and inflammation","volume":"4","author":"Conti","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2012.04.001","article-title":"Where is the vitamin D receptor?","volume":"1","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-011-9195-z","article-title":"Vitamin D metabolism and signaling in the immune system","volume":"13","author":"White","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2023.106253","article-title":"Two lineages of immune cells that differentially express the vitamin D receptor","volume":"228","author":"Cantorna","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2022.106084","article-title":"Novel insight into the role of the vitamin D receptor in the development and function of the immune system","volume":"219","author":"Arora","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574967","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.574967","article-title":"Immunomodulatory Function of Vitamin D and Its Role in Autoimmune Thyroid Disease","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2022.109105","article-title":"Vitamin D boosts immune response of macrophages through a regulatory network of microRNAs and mRNAs","volume":"109","author":"Fernandez","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2010.10.011","article-title":"Vitamin D3 signalling to mast cells: A new regulatory axis","volume":"43","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00966","article-title":"Insights Into the Role of Vitamin D as a Biomarker in Stem Cell Transplantation","volume":"11","author":"Soto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2012.01.044","article-title":"Steroid requirements and immune associations with vitamin D are stronger in children than adults with asthma","volume":"129","author":"Goleva","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2012.10.009","article-title":"Immuno-modulatory effects of vitamin D3 in human monocyte and macrophages","volume":"280","author":"Malaguarnera","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1772","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01772","article-title":"Vitamin D Regulates the Microbiota to Control the Numbers of ROR\u03b3t\/FoxP3+ Regulatory T Cells in the Colon","volume":"10","author":"Cantorna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.12071","article-title":"Vitamin D3 induces IDO+ tolerogenic DCs and enhances Treg, reducing the severity of EAE","volume":"19","author":"Farias","year":"2013","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12403","article-title":"The Active Metabolite of Vitamin D3 as a Potential Immunomodulator","volume":"83","author":"Szymczak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"White, J.H. (2022). Emerging Roles of Vitamin D-Induced Antimicrobial Peptides in Antiviral Innate Immunity. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14020284"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martens, P.-J., Gysemans, C., Verstuyf, A., and Mathieu, C. (2020). Vitamin D\u2019s Effect on Immune Function. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051248"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"4048","article-title":"Editorial\u2015Vitamin D status: A key modulator of innate immunity and natural defense from acute viral respiratory infections","volume":"24","author":"Fabbri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18604","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-22045-y","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on cellular immunity and inflammatory markers in COVID-19 patients admitted to the ICU","volume":"12","author":"Bychinin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2023.03.005","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as mediators of mast cell cross talk with immune cells: Possible druggable targets","volume":"152","author":"Shefler","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Katsoulis-Dimitriou, K., Kotrba, J., Voss, M., Dudeck, J., and Dudeck, A. (2020). Mast Cell Functions Linking Innate Sensing to Adaptive Immunity. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202011.0016.v1"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202048668","article-title":"Mast cells crosstalk with B cells in the gut and sustain IgA response in the inflamed intestine","volume":"51","author":"Valeri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yun, H.D., Goel, Y., and Gupta, K. (2023). Crosstalk of Mast Cells and Natural Killer Cells with Neurons in Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241612543"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01422","article-title":"Interactions between Innate Lymphoid Cells and Cells of the Innate and Adaptive Immune System","volume":"8","author":"Symowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2007.12.438","article-title":"Mast Cell-Eosinophil Cross-Talk Regulates Function and Viability of Both Cells in Vitro","volume":"121","author":"Elishmereni","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1159\/000053698","article-title":"Cross-Talk between Mast Cells and Macrophages Involving Interferon-\u03b3 and Nitric Oxide","volume":"124","author":"Coleman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201412074","article-title":"Mast cells and dendritic cells form synapses that facilitate antigen transfer for T cell activation","volume":"210","author":"Cannon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0506322","article-title":"VDR-dependent regulation of mast cell maturation mediated by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3","volume":"81","author":"Baroni","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13110","article-title":"Vitamin D contributes to mast cell stabilization","volume":"72","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.11.030","article-title":"Mechanisms of vitamin D3 metabolite repression of IgE-dependent mast cell activation","volume":"133","author":"Yip","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2755","article-title":"IgE and mast cells in allergic disease","volume":"18","author":"Galli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00238","article-title":"Mast Cells and Influenza A Virus: Association with Allergic Responses and Beyond","volume":"6","author":"Graham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.12718","article-title":"Retinol binding protein and vitamin D associations with serum antibody isotypes, serum influenza virus-specific neutralizing activities and airway cytokine profiles","volume":"183","author":"Jones","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendoza, R.P., Fudge, D.H., and Brown, J.M. (2021). Cellular Energetics of Mast Cell Development and Activation. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10030524"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3690","article-title":"Mast cell secretory granules: Armed for battle","volume":"14","author":"Wernersson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-016-0598-5","article-title":"Mast Cells and Anaphylaxis","volume":"16","author":"Lieberman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2023.04.011","article-title":"IgE receptor of mast cells signals mediator release and inflammation via adaptor protein 14-3-3\u03b6","volume":"152","author":"Yip","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2006.04.005","article-title":"Anti-IgE as a mast cell\u2013stabilizing therapeutic agent","volume":"117","author":"Chang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2005.06.007","article-title":"Mast cells and eosinophils: A novel link between inflammation and angiogenesis in allergic diseases","volume":"116","author":"Puxeddu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2005.12.067","article-title":"Stem cell factor and its receptor c-Kit as targets for inflammatory diseases","volume":"533","author":"Reber","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murdaca, G., Allegra, A., Tonacci, A., Musolino, C., Ricciardi, L., and Gangemi, S. (2022). Mast Cells and Vitamin D Status: A Clinical and Biological Link in the Onset of Allergy and Bone Diseases. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10081877"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kakavas, S., Karayiannis, D., and Mastora, Z. (2021). The Complex Interplay between Immunonutrition, Mast Cells, and Histamine Signaling in COVID-19. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13103458"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2012.12.1562","article-title":"Vitamin D in allergic disease: Shedding light on a complex problem","volume":"131","author":"Muehleisen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2012-1172","article-title":"Cord blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and allergic disease during infancy","volume":"130","author":"Jones","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200324532","article-title":"The anti-inflammatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on Th2 cells in vivo are due in part to the control of integrin-mediated T lymphocyte homing","volume":"34","author":"Topilski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-410X.2006.05971.x","article-title":"Oral treatment with a vitamin D3 analogue (BXL628) has anti-inflammatory effects in rodent model of interstitial cystitis","volume":"97","author":"Benigni","year":"2006","journal-title":"BJU Int."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"96","article-title":"Stabilization of the mast cell by vitamin D","volume":"28","author":"Espinosa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alerg. Asma Inmunol. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108444","article-title":"Vitamin D suppress the production of vascular endothelial growth factor in mast cell by inhibiting PI3K\/Akt\/p38 MAPK\/HIF-1\u03b1 pathway in chronic spontaneous urticaria","volume":"215","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2327","article-title":"Immunomodulatory mast cells: Negative, as well as positive, regulators of immunity","volume":"8","author":"Galli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2006.060037","article-title":"Inflammatory murine skin responses to UV-B light are partially dependent on endothelin-1 and mast cells","volume":"169","author":"Metz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20091725","article-title":"Evidence that vitamin D3 promotes mast cell\u2013dependent reduction of chronic UVB-induced skin pathology in mice","volume":"207","author":"Biggs","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piliponsky, A.M., Acharya, M., and Shubin, N.J. (2019). Mast Cells in Viral, Bacterial, and Fungal Infection Immunity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20122851"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2009.04.025","article-title":"TLR2-dependent mast cell activation contributes to the control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection","volume":"11","author":"Carlos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.4161\/derm.3.4.15027","article-title":"Antimicrobial implications of vitamin D","volume":"3","author":"Youssef","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dermato-Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12287","DOI":"10.1038\/srep12287","article-title":"Opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans elicits a temporal response in primary human mast cells","volume":"5","author":"Lopes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.04.034","article-title":"IL-9 and Mast Cells Are Key Players of Candida albicans Commensalism and Pathogenesis in the Gut","volume":"23","author":"Renga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.3109\/1040841X.2011.622716","article-title":"Translating the role of vitamin D3 in infectious diseases","volume":"38","author":"Khoo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2032","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2032","article-title":"The interplay between vitamin D and viral infections","volume":"29","author":"Shokri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddiqui, M., Manansala, J.S., Abdulrahman, H.A., Nasrallah, G.K., Smatti, M.K., Younes, N., Althani, A.A., and Yassine, H.M. (2020). Immune Modulatory Effects of Vitamin D on Viral Infections. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092879"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000253405.17038.43","article-title":"Seasonal variation in the epidemiology of sepsis","volume":"35","author":"Danai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e3181817bc1","article-title":"Variations in Vitamin D Production Could Possibly Explain the Seasonality of Childhood Respiratory Infections in Hawaii","volume":"27","author":"Grant","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268806007175","article-title":"Epidemic influenza and vitamin D","volume":"134","author":"Cannell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S291584","article-title":"Effects of Vitamin D on COVID-19 Infection and Prognosis: A Systematic Review","volume":"14","author":"Yisak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Risk Manag. Healthc. Policy"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1177\/000992287701600106","article-title":"The rachitic lung. Pulmonary findings in 30 infants and children with malnutritional rickets","volume":"16","author":"Khajavi","year":"1977","journal-title":"Clin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2009.05.179","article-title":"TLR2 and TLR4 agonists induce production of the vasoactive peptide endothelin-1 by human dendritic cells","volume":"46","author":"Spirig","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2018.03.040","article-title":"Vitamin D and toll like receptors","volume":"203","author":"Arababadi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7715","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.15-17768","article-title":"Vitamin D Activation and Function in Human Corneal Epithelial Cells During TLR-Induced Inflammation","volume":"56","author":"Reins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Investig. Opthalmology Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"S13","article-title":"Vitamin D3 ameliorates herpes simplex virus-induced Beh\u00e7et\u2019s disease-like inflammation in a mouse model through down-regulation of Toll-like receptors","volume":"29","author":"Choi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.3390\/biomed1020013","article-title":"Mast Cell Tryptase and Implications for SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis","volume":"1","author":"Karimi","year":"2021","journal-title":"BioMed"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2021.05.013","article-title":"Essential sufficiency of zinc, \u03c9-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin D and magnesium for prevention and treatment of COVID-19, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, lung diseases and cancer","volume":"187","author":"Story","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R133","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-20-0665","article-title":"Mechanisms in Endocrinology: Vitamin D and COVID-19","volume":"183","author":"Bilezikian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-020-02488-5","article-title":"The importance of vitamin d metabolism as a potential prophylactic, immunoregulatory and neuroprotective treatment for COVID-19","volume":"18","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1159\/000237476","article-title":"Association of natural killer cell activity with serum IgE","volume":"112","author":"Kusaka","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"189096","article-title":"CD8+ T-Cell Deficiency, Epstein-Barr Virus Infection, Vitamin D Deficiency, and Steps to Autoimmunity: A Unifying Hypothesis","volume":"2012","author":"Pender","year":"2012","journal-title":"Autoimmune Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smolders, J., Thewissen, M., Peelen, E., Menheere, P., Tervaert, J.W.C., Damoiseaux, J., and Hupperts, R. (2009). Vitamin D Status Is Positively Correlated with Regulatory T Cell Function in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006635"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpendmet0716","article-title":"Unexpected actions of vitamin D: New perspectives on the regulation of innate and adaptive immunity","volume":"4","author":"Adams","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"395","article-title":"Effect of high-dose vitamin D3 supplementation on antibody responses against Epstein\u2013Barr virus in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Lossius","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3054","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.6.3054","article-title":"IgE-Mediated Activation of NK Cells Through Fc\u03b3RIII","volume":"170","author":"Arase","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4731(89)90120-9","article-title":"The effect of calcitriol on natural killer cell activity in hemodialyzed patients","volume":"34","author":"Quesada","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9190","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1105079108","article-title":"Immune surveillance by mast cells during dengue infection promotes natural killer (NK) and NKT-cell recruitment and viral clearance","volume":"108","author":"John","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"1346","article-title":"Faculty Opinions recommendation of Respiratory syncytial virus infection of primary human mast cells induces the selective production of type I interferons, CXCL10, and CCL4","volume":"136","author":"Alyazidi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2567.2002.01398.x","article-title":"A cathelicidin family of human antibacterial peptide LL-37 induces mast cell chemotaxis","volume":"106","author":"Niyonsaba","year":"2002","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"94","article-title":"Virus-Infected Human Mast Cells Enhance Natural Killer Cell Functions","volume":"9","author":"Haidl","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1123933","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor Triggering of a Vitamin D-Mediated Human Antimicrobial Response","volume":"311","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshall, J.S., Portales-Cervantes, L., and Leong, E. (2019). Mast Cell Responses to Viruses and Pathogen Products. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20174241"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2020.05.003","article-title":"Protective and pathogenic roles for mast cells during viral infections","volume":"66","author":"Rathore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2018.0026","article-title":"25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25 Dihydroxyvitamin D3 as an Antiviral and Immunomodulator Against Herpes Simplex Virus-1 Infection in HeLa Cells","volume":"31","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2227","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.C109.071225","article-title":"Direct and indirect induction by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 of the NOD2\/CARD15-defensin beta2 innate immune pathway defective in Crohn disease","volume":"285","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2002.129801","article-title":"Biology and clinical relevance of naturally occurring antimicrobial peptides","volume":"110","author":"Gallo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"2274","article-title":"Cutting Edge: Mast Cell Antimicrobial Activity Is Mediated by Expression of Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptide","volume":"170","author":"Vitiello","year":"2003","journal-title":"Perspect. Surg."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"1551","article-title":"Commensal Bacteria Lipoteichoic Acid Increases Skin Mast Cell Antimicrobial Activity against Vaccinia Viruses","volume":"189","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2014.12.006","article-title":"Human-derived cathelicidin LL-37 directly activates mast cells to proinflammatory mediator synthesis and migratory response","volume":"293","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3958","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.179.6.3958","article-title":"Chemoattraction of macrophages, T lymphocytes, and mast cells is evolutionarily conserved within the human alpha-defensin family","volume":"179","author":"Grigat","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1300023","article-title":"\u03b2-Defensins Activate Human Mast Cells via Mas-Related Gene X2","volume":"191","author":"Subramanian","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44739","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.277152","article-title":"Mas-related Gene X2 (MrgX2) Is a Novel G Protein-coupled Receptor for the Antimicrobial Peptide LL-37 in Human Mast Cells: Resistance to receptor phosphorylation, desensitization, and internalization","volume":"286","author":"Subramanian","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7357162","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/7357162","article-title":"Cathelicidin LL-37 Affects Surface and Intracellular Toll-Like Receptor Expression in Tissue Mast Cells","volume":"2018","author":"Agier","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.31.212","article-title":"Human Cathelicidin CAP18\/LL-37 Changes Mast Cell Function toward Innate Immunity","volume":"31","author":"Yoshioka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11750","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30289-w","article-title":"The RLR\/NLR expression and pro-inflammatory activity of tissue mast cells are regulated by cathelicidin LL-37 and defensin hBD-2","volume":"8","author":"Agier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10405","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm4.10405","article-title":"Vitamin D and Immune Regulation: Antibacterial, Antiviral, Anti-Inflammatory","volume":"5","author":"Bishop","year":"2020","journal-title":"JBMR Plus"},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"2909","article-title":"Cutting Edge: 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Is a Direct Inducer of Antimicrobial Peptide Gene Expression","volume":"173","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2019.109281","article-title":"Does a polarization state exist for mast cells in cancer?","volume":"131","author":"Presta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2016.34","article-title":"HMGB1, IL-1\u03b1, IL-33 and S100 proteins: Dual-function alarmins","volume":"14","author":"Bertheloot","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2005.09.015","article-title":"IL-33, an Interleukin-1-like Cytokine that Signals via the IL-1 Receptor-Related Protein ST2 and Induces T Helper Type 2-Associated Cytokines","volume":"23","author":"Schmitz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.95","article-title":"Interleukin-33 in health and disease","volume":"16","author":"Liew","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellsig.2008.05.013","article-title":"TRAF6 is a critical signal transducer in IL-33 signaling pathway","volume":"20","author":"Tago","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cell. Signal."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10281","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1404182111","article-title":"IL-33\/ST2 axis promotes mast cell survival via BCLXL","volume":"111","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.179.4.2051","article-title":"Cutting Edge: The ST2 Ligand IL-33 Potently Activates and Drives Maturation of Human Mast Cells","volume":"179","author":"Allakhverdi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201040718","article-title":"Amplification of cytokine production through synergistic activation of NFAT and AP-1 following stimulation of mast cells with antigen and IL-33","volume":"41","author":"Andrade","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s13601-015-0076-5","article-title":"The role of IL-33 and mast cells in allergy and inflammation","volume":"5","author":"Saluja","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L429","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00252.2011","article-title":"IL-33 induces Th17-mediated airway inflammation via mast cells in ovalbumin-challenged mice","volume":"302","author":"Cho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"35","article-title":"Vitamin D Modulates the Expression of IL-27 and IL-33 in the Central Nervous System in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE)","volume":"12","author":"Azizi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Iran. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1684\/ecn.2016.0377","article-title":"The effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on TSLP, IL-33 and IL-25 expression in respiratory epithelium","volume":"27","author":"Proboszcz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Cytokine Netw."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604055","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.604055","article-title":"IL-33\/Vitamin D Crosstalk in Psoriasis-Associated Osteoporosis","volume":"11","author":"Ginaldi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wierzbicka, J.M., Piotrowska, A., Purzycka-Bohdan, D., Olszewska, A., Nowak, J.I., Szczerkowska-Dobosz, A., Nedoszytko, B., Nowicki, R.J., and \u017bmijewski, M.A. (2021). The Effects of Vitamin D on the Expression of IL-33 and Its Receptor ST2 in Skin Cells; Potential Implication for Psoriasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222312907"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2020.104791","article-title":"Type 1 interferons as a potential treatment against COVID-19","volume":"178","author":"Sallard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1782","article-title":"Activation of innate immune antiviral responses by Nod2","volume":"10","author":"Sabbah","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2010.12.006","article-title":"Vitamin D and the anti-viral state","volume":"50","author":"Beard","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gois, P.H.F., Ferreira, D., Olenski, S., and Seguro, A.C. (2017). Vitamin D and Infectious Diseases: Simple Bystander or Contributing Factor?. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9070651"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1139\/cjpp-2014-0352","article-title":"An update on the association of vitamin D deficiency with common infectious diseases","volume":"93","author":"Watkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.5114\/ceh.2015.51373","article-title":"Original article The prevalence and severity of 25-(OH)-vitamin D insufficiency in HCV infected and in HBV infected patients: A prospective study","volume":"1","author":"Piekarska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1590\/s0004-2803.2017v54n1-11","article-title":"Is there an association between vitamin D and liver fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C?","volume":"54","author":"Oliveira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arq. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11152","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i39.11152","article-title":"Serum vitamin D3 does not correlate with liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C","volume":"21","author":"Ren","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2014.0060","article-title":"Impact of Vitamin D Supplementation on Sustained Virological Response in Chronic Hepatitis C Genotype 4 Patients Treated by Pegylated Interferon\/Ribavirin","volume":"35","author":"Esmat","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Interf. Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grammatikos, G., Lange, C., Susser, S., Schwendy, S., Dikopoulos, N., Buggisch, P., Encke, J., Teuber, G., Goeser, T., and Thimme, R. (2014). Vitamin D Levels Vary during Antiviral Treatment but Are Unable to Predict Treatment Outcome in HCV Genotype 1 Infected Patients. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0087974"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2014.08.004","article-title":"Vitamin D level and sustained virologic response to interferon-based antiviral therapy in chronic hepatitis C: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"61","author":"Kitson","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2012.11.017","article-title":"Vitamin D status does not predict sustained virologic response or fibrosis stage in chronic hepatitis C genotype 1 infection","volume":"58","author":"Kitson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5647","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i18.5647","article-title":"Vitamin D in addition to peg-interferon-alpha\/ribavirin in chronic hepatitis C virus infection: ANRS-HC25-VITAVIC study","volume":"21","author":"Terrier","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.039974","article-title":"Vitamin D and the racial difference in the genotype 1 chronic hepatitis C treatment response","volume":"96","author":"Weintraub","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.06.025","article-title":"Association of baseline vitamin D levels with clinical parameters and treatment outcomes in chronic hepatitis B","volume":"63","author":"Chan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.5114\/ceh.2019.83160","article-title":"Chronic hepatitis B virus infection is associated with decreased serum 25(OH)D concentration in non-cirrhotic patients","volume":"5","author":"Rogalska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"E213","article-title":"Association of baseline vitamin D level with genetic determinants and virologic response in patients with chronic hepatitis B","volume":"48","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hepatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3926","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000003926","article-title":"Vitamin D serum level is associated with Child-Pugh score and metabolic enzyme imbalances, but not viral load in chronic hepatitis B patients","volume":"95","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Medecine"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.26488","article-title":"Low vitamin D serum concentration is associated with high levels of hepatitis B virus replication in chronically infected patients","volume":"58","author":"Farnik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.24575","article-title":"Vitamin D: An innate antiviral agent suppressing hepatitis C virus in human hepatocytes","volume":"54","author":"Bachmetov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutierrez, J.A., Jones, K.A., Flores, R., Singhania, A., Woelk, C.H., Schooley, R.T., and Wyles, D.L. (2014). Vitamin D Metabolites Inhibit Hepatitis C Virus and Modulate Cellular Gene Expression. J. Virol. Antivir. Res., 3.","DOI":"10.4172\/2324-8955.1000129"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.25763","article-title":"25-hydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses hepatitis C virus production","volume":"56","author":"Matsumura","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2018.10.014","article-title":"Vitamin D derivatives inhibit hepatitis C virus production through the suppression of apolipoprotein","volume":"160","author":"Murayama","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ravid, A., Rapaport, N., Issachar, A., Erman, A., Bachmetov, L., Tur-Kaspa, R., and Zemel, R. (2019). 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Inhibits Hepatitis C Virus Production in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line by a Vitamin D Receptor-Independent Mechanism. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20092367"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2018.11.013","article-title":"Vitamin D attenuates rhinovirus-induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR) in respiratory epithelial cells","volume":"187","author":"Greiller","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0902840","article-title":"Vitamin D decreases respiratory syncytial virus induction of NF-kappaB-linked chemokines and cytokines in airway epithelium while maintaining the antiviral state","volume":"184","author":"Hansdottir","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2014.10.016","article-title":"Cord serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D correlates with early childhood viral-induced wheezing","volume":"109","author":"Stelmach","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1093\/jpids\/piu042","article-title":"Vitamin D Levels Are Unrelated to the Severity of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Bronchiolitis Among Hospitalized Infants","volume":"4","author":"Beigelman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brockman-Schneider, R.A., Pickles, R.J., and Gern, J.E. (2014). Effects of Vitamin D on Airway Epithelial Cell Morphology and Rhinovirus Replication. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086755"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2965","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1500460","article-title":"Vitamin D [1,25(OH)2D3] Differentially Regulates Human Innate Cytokine Responses to Bacterial versus Viral Pattern Recognition Receptor Stimuli","volume":"196","author":"Fitch","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M.-D., Lin, C.-H., Lei, W.-T., Chang, H.-Y., Lee, H.-C., Yeung, C.-Y., Chiu, N.-C., Chi, H., Liu, J.-M., and Hsu, R.-J. (2018). Does Vitamin D Deficiency Affect the Immunogenic Responses to Influenza Vaccination? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10040409"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campbell, G.R., and Spector, S.A. (2012). Vitamin D Inhibits Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in Macrophages through the Induction of Autophagy. PLoS Pathog., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002689"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aguilar-Jim\u00e9nez, W., Zapata, W., Caruz, A., and Rugeles, M.T. (2013). High Transcript Levels of Vitamin D Receptor Are Correlated with Higher mRNA Expression of Human Beta Defensins and IL-10 in Mucosa of HIV-1-Exposed Seronegative Individuals. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0082717"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2015.08.007","article-title":"Vitamin-D deficiency impairs CD4+T-cell count recovery rate in HIV-positive adults on highly active antiretroviral therapy: A longitudinal study","volume":"35","author":"Ezeamama","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ashenafi, S., Amogne, W., Kassa, E., Gebreselassie, N., Bekele, A., Aseffa, G., Getachew, M., Aseffa, A., Worku, A., and Hammar, U. (2019). Daily Nutritional Supplementation with Vitamin D3 and Phenylbutyrate to Treatment-Na\u00efve HIV Patients Tested in a Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11010133"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1310\/hct1303-162","article-title":"Correlation of increases in 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D during vitamin D therapy with activation of CD4+ T lymphocytes in HIV-1-infected males","volume":"13","author":"Bang","year":"2012","journal-title":"HIV Clin. Trials"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP2318","article-title":"Risk Factors for Vitamin D Deficiency and Relationship with Cardiac Biomarkers, Inflammation and Immune Restoration in HIV-Infected Youth","volume":"17","author":"Eckard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.02.006","article-title":"Relationship of vitamin D insufficiency to AIDS-associated Kaposi\u2019s sarcoma outcomes: Retrospective analysis of a prospective clinical trial in Zimbabwe","volume":"24","author":"Erlandson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"CD003650","article-title":"Micronutrient supplementation in adults with HIV infection","volume":"2017","author":"Visser","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70267-4","article-title":"Environmental risk factors and multiple sclerosis: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses","volume":"14","author":"Belbasis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458513483888","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus antibodies and vitamin D in prospective multiple sclerosis biobank samples","volume":"19","author":"Salzer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_157","first-page":"159","article-title":"Elevated Epstein-Barr virus-encoded nuclear antigen-1 immune responses predict conversion to multiple sclerosis","volume":"67","author":"Messmer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2007.04.030","article-title":"Vitamin D status modulates the immune response to Epstein Barr virus: Synergistic effect of risk factors in multiple sclerosis","volume":"70","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458513489756","article-title":"The effect of vitamin D-related interventions on multiple sclerosis relapses: A meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"James","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, C. (2020). Controversial Effects of Vitamin D and Related Genes on Viral Infections, Pathogenesis, and Treatment Outcomes. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12040962"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00849-0","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-triggered mast cell rapid degranulation induces alveolar epithelial inflammation and lung injury","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal. Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrea, L., Verde, L., Grant, W.B., Frias-Toral, E., Sarno, G., Vetrani, C., Ceriani, F., Garcia-Velasquez, E., Contreras-Brice\u00f1o, J., and Savastano, S. (2022). Vitamin D: A Role Also in Long COVID-19?. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14081625"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(20)30183-2","article-title":"Vitamin-D and COVID-19: Do deficient risk a poorer outcome?","volume":"8","author":"Mitchell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.52.1.223-230.1984","article-title":"Lysis of dengue virus-infected cells by natural cell-mediated cytotoxicity and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity","volume":"52","author":"Kurane","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8408","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.76.16.8408-8419.2002","article-title":"Dengue Virus Selectively Induces Human Mast Cell Chemokine Production","volume":"76","author":"King","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.1986.tb03002.x","article-title":"Degranulation and Histamine Release from Murine Mast Cells Sensitized with Dengue Virus-Immune Sera","volume":"30","author":"Sanchez","year":"1986","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI122530","article-title":"Immune synapses between mast cells and \u03b3\u03b4 T cells limit viral infection","volume":"129","author":"Mantri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016840","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/1016840","article-title":"Vitamin D-Regulated MicroRNAs: Are They Protective Factors against Dengue Virus Infection?","volume":"2016","author":"Arboleda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Virol."},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"4676","article-title":"Inflammatory Response of Mast Cells during Influenza A Virus Infection Is Mediated by Active Infection and RIG-I Signaling","volume":"190","author":"Graham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3347","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06053-11","article-title":"Mast Cell-Induced Lung Injury in Mice Infected with H5N1 Influenza Virus","volume":"86","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grant, W.B., Lahore, H., McDonnell, S.L., Baggerly, C.A., French, C.B., Aliano, J.L., and Bhattoa, H.P. (2020). Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202003.0235.v2"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barlow, P.G., Svoboda, P., Mackellar, A., Nash, A.A., York, I.A., Pohl, J., Davidson, D.J., and Donis, R.O. (2011). Antiviral Activity and Increased Host Defense against Influenza Infection Elicited by the Human Cathelicidin LL-37. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025333"}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/12\/18\/2271\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:50:42Z","timestamp":1760129442000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/12\/18\/2271"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,14]]},"references-count":172,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["cells12182271"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells12182271","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,14]]}}}