{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T22:57:05Z","timestamp":1787871425767,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]],"date-time":"2023-10-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697500800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) molecule includes two protein components: apolipoprotein(a) and apoB100. The molecule is the main transporter of oxidized phospholipids (OxPL) in plasma. The concentration of this strongly atherogenic lipoprotein is predominantly regulated by the LPA gene expression. Lp(a) is regarded as a risk factor for several cardiovascular diseases. Numerous epidemiological, clinical and in vitro studies showed a strong association between increased Lp(a) and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), calcific aortic valve disease\/aortic stenosis (CAVD\/AS), stroke, heart failure or peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Although there are acknowledged contributions of Lp(a) to the mentioned diseases, clinicians struggle with many inconveniences such as a lack of well-established treatment lowering Lp(a), and common guidelines for diagnosing or assessing cardiovascular risk among both adult and pediatric patients. Lp(a) levels are different with regard to a particular race or ethnicity and might fluctuate during childhood. Furthermore, the lack of standardization of assays is an additional impediment. The review presents the recent knowledge on Lp(a) based on clinical and scientific research, but also highlights relevant aspects of future study directions that would approach more suitable and effective managing risk associated with increased Lp(a), as well as control the Lp(a) levels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12202472","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]],"date-time":"2023-10-17T10:43:10Z","timestamp":1697539390000},"page":"2472","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Lipoprotein(a)\u201460 Years Later\u2014What Do We Know?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Anna","family":"Pas\u0142awska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuchow Health Center, Medical Hospital Laboratory, Szpitalna St. 1, 33-170 Tuchow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2061-999X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Przemys\u0142aw J.","family":"Tomasik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Pediatric Institute, College of Medicine, Jagiellonian University, Wielicka St. 265, 30-663 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e48","article-title":"American Heart Association Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; and Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease; Lipoprotein(a): A Genetically Determined, Causal, and Prevalent Risk Factor for Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association","volume":"42","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1472","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.034311","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) Levels and the Risk of Myocardial Infarction Among 7 Ethnic Groups","volume":"139","author":"McQueen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2760","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehy902","article-title":"High lipoprotein(a) and high risk of mortality","volume":"40","author":"Langsted","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2018.1470","article-title":"Association of LPA variants with risk of coronary disease and the implicationsforlipoprotein(a)-lowering therapies: A Mendelian randomization analysis","volume":"3","author":"Burgess","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s40119-020-00177-4","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) and Cardiovascular Disease Prevention across Diverse Populations","volume":"9","author":"Pearson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cardiol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R067314","article-title":"Structure, function, and genetics of lipoprotein(a)","volume":"57","author":"Schmidt","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.2147\/VHRM.S266244","article-title":"Elevated Lipoprotein(a): Background, Current Insights and Future Potential Therapies","volume":"17","author":"Handhle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vasc. Health Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11789-019-00093-5","article-title":"Prediction of cardiovascular risk by Lp(a) concentrations or genetic variants within the LPA gene region","volume":"14","author":"Kronenberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Cardiol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3491764","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/3491764","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) the Insurgent: A New Insight into the Structure, Function, Metabolism, Pathogenicity, and Medications Affecting Lipoprotein(a) Molecule","volume":"2020","author":"Jawi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iannuzzo, G., Tripaldella, M., Mallardo, V., Morgillo, M., Vitelli, N., Iannuzzi, A., Aliberti, E., Giallauria, F., Tramontano, A., and Carluccio, R. (2021). Lipoprotein(a) Where Do We Stand? From the Physiopathology to Innovative Therapy. Biomedicines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines9070838"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"155","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) catabolism: A case of multiple receptors","volume":"51","author":"Sally","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pathology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1097\/HCO.0000000000000661","article-title":"Current and future role of lipoprotein(a) in preventive cardiology","volume":"34","author":"Berman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.RV17034","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) as an Old and New Causal Risk Factor of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"26","author":"Tada","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2019.02.008","article-title":"SLC22A3 is associated with lipoprotein (a) concentration and cardiovascular disease in familial hypercholesterolemia","volume":"66","author":"Paquette","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz455","article-title":"2019 ESC\/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: Lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk: The Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS)","volume":"41","author":"Mach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2019.10.011","article-title":"HEART UK consensus statement on Lipoprotein(a): A call to action","volume":"291","author":"Cegla","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2022.04.017","article-title":"The long journey of lipoprotein(a) from cardiovascular curiosity to therapeutic target","volume":"349","author":"Koschinsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2020.03.043","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a): An Update on a Marker of Residual Risk and Associated Clinical Manifestations","volume":"126","author":"Shah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enkhmaa, B., Petersen, K.S., Kris-Etherton, P.M., and Berglund, L. (2020). Diet and Lp(a): Does dietary change modify residual cardiovascular risk conferred by Lp(a)?. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12072024"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatia, H.S., and Wilkinson, M.J. (2022). Lipoprotein(a): Evidence for role as a Causal Risk Factor in cardiovascular Disease and Emerging Therapies. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11206040"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16609","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-21121-7","article-title":"Independent association of Lp(a) with platelet reactivity in subjects without statins or antiplatelet agents","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.120.315291","article-title":"Lp(a) (Lipoprotein[a]) concentrations and incident atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: New insights from a large National Biobank","volume":"41","author":"Patel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maloberti, A., Fabbri, S., Colombo, V., Gualini, E., Monticelli, M., Daus, F., Busti, A., Galasso, M., De Censi, L., and Algeri, M. (2022). Lipoprotein(a): Cardiovascular Disease, Aortic Stenosis and New Therapeutic Option. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010170"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2019.03.524","article-title":"Elevated Lipoprotein(a) and Risk of Ischemic Stroke","volume":"74","author":"Langsted","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1826","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.045826","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) in Alzheimer, Atherosclerotic, Cerebrovascular, Thrombotic, and Valvular Disease","volume":"141","author":"Larsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2019.06.011","article-title":"Individuals with familial hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular events have higher circulating Lp(a) levels","volume":"13","author":"Pavanello","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvab100","article-title":"Treatment and prevention of lipoprotein(a)-mediated cardiovascular disease: The emerging potential of RNA interference therapeutics","volume":"118","author":"Swerdlow","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hjc.2020.09.016","article-title":"The role of Lipoprotein(a) in cardiovascular disease: Current concepts and future perspectives","volume":"61","author":"Vavuranakis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hell. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2022.02.018","article-title":"Elevated Lipoprotein(a) and Risk of Atrial Fibrillation: An Observational and Mendelian Randomization Study","volume":"79","author":"Chong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e008401","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.120.008401","article-title":"Lp(a) (Lipoprotein [a]) and Risk for Incident Atrial Fibrillation: Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis","volume":"13","author":"Garg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-021-01482-0","article-title":"Association of Lipoprotein (a) variants with risk of cardiovascular disease: A Mendelian randomization study","volume":"20","author":"Xia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-022-01728-5","article-title":"Low lipoprotein(a) concentration is associated with atrial fibrillation: A large retrospective cohort study","volume":"21","author":"Tao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Telyuk, P., Austin, D., Luvai, A., and Zaman, A. (2022). Lipoprotein(a): Insights for the Practicing Clinician. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11133673"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2018.3798","article-title":"Association of Mild to Moderate Aortic Valve Stenosis Progression with Higher Lipoprotein(a) and Oxidized Phospholipid Levels","volume":"3","author":"Capoulade","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3960","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehac377","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) is associated with the onset but not the progression of aortic valve calcification","volume":"43","author":"Kaiser","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2021.11.019","article-title":"High lipoprotein(a) is associated with major adverse limb events after femoral artery endarterectomy","volume":"349","author":"Verwer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.3400\/avd.oa.22-00046","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) is a Promising Residual Risk Factor for Long-Term Clinical Prognosis in Peripheral Arterial Disease","volume":"15","author":"Sakata","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Vasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1002\/hep4.1830","article-title":"Low Lipoprotein(a) Levels Predict Hepatic Fibrosis in Patients with Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"6","author":"Meroni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hepatol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2022.04.005","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) and ethnicities","volume":"349","author":"Mehta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab287","article-title":"Effects of a low-carbohydrate diet on insulin-resistant dyslipoproteinemia\u2014A randomized controlled feeding trial","volume":"115","author":"Ebbeling","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.6640","article-title":"Impact of flaxseed supplementation on plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"34","author":"Hadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2022.04.006","article-title":"Non-genetic influences on lipoprotein(a) concentrations","volume":"349","author":"Enkhmaa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.5455\/medarh.2021.75.11-15","article-title":"Changes of certain metabolic and cardiovascular markers Fructosamine, H-FABP and lipoprotein (a) in patients with hypothyroidism","volume":"75","author":"Kaftan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Arch."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ghir.2021.101393","article-title":"Growth hormone replacement may influence the biological action of thyroid hormone on liver and bone tissue","volume":"57\u201358","author":"Glynn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Growth Horm. IGF Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R083626","article-title":"The role of lipoprotein(a) in chronic kidney disease","volume":"59","author":"Hopewell","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0010.7536","article-title":"Worsening of serum lipid profile after direct acting antiviral treatment","volume":"17","author":"Gitto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2020.08.042","article-title":"Should Lipoprotein(a) be Measured in Youth?","volume":"228","author":"Kohn","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2015.07.006","article-title":"Lipoprotein (a): Its relevance to the pediatric population","volume":"9","author":"McNeal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgab734","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) levels at birth and in early childhood\u2014The COMPARE study","volume":"107","author":"Hansen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2022.03.004","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) levels from childhood to adulthood: Data in nearly 3000 children who visited a pediatric lipid clinic","volume":"349","author":"Hof","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R051904","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a): Impact by ethnicity and environmental and medical conditions","volume":"57","author":"Enkhmaa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R060582","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a): Truly a direct prothrombotic factor in cardiovascular disease?","volume":"57","author":"Boffa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2018.07.014","article-title":"In pediatric familial hypercholesterolemia, lipoprotein(a) is more predictive than LDL-C for early onset of cardiovascular disease in family members","volume":"12","author":"Zawacki","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"e603","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk reduction in high-risk pediatric patients: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association","volume":"139","author":"Steinberger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bvab138","DOI":"10.1210\/jendso\/bvab138","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) Concentrations Correlate with LDL-C in Children with Type 1 and 2 Diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Foster","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Endocr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koutsogianni, A., Liamis, G., Liberopoulos, E., Adamidis, P.S., and Florentin, M. (2023). Effects of Lipid-Modifying and Other Drugs on Lipoprotein(a) Levels\u2014Potent Clinical Implications. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16050750"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Genovesi, S., Giussani, M., Lieti, G., Orlando, A., Patti, I., and Parati, G. (2023). Evidence and Uncertainties on Lipoprotein(a) as a Marker of Cardiovascular Health Risk in Children and Adolescents. Biomedicine, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11061661"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2022.04.008","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) measurement issues: Are we making a mountain out of a Molehill?","volume":"349","author":"Kronenberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2017.10.024","article-title":"Temporal variability in lipoprotein(a) levels in patients enrolled in the placebo arms of IONIS-APO(a)Rx and IONIS-APO(a)-LRx antisense oligonucleotide clinical trials","volume":"12","author":"Marcovina","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.11.002","article-title":"2018 AHA\/ACC\/AACVPR\/AAPA\/ABC\/ACPM\/ADA\/AGS\/APhA\/ASPC\/NLA\/ PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol","volume":"73","author":"Grundy","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjca.2021.03.016","article-title":"2021 Canadian Cardiovascular Society Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidemia for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults","volume":"37","author":"Pearson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2019.04.010","article-title":"Use of Lipoprotein(a) in clinical practice: A biomarker whose time has come. A scientific statement from the National Lipid Association","volume":"13","author":"Wilson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2021.12.016","article-title":"Managing Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Risk in Young Adults: JACC State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"79","author":"Stone","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3925","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehac361","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and aortic stenosis: A European Atherosclerosis Society consensus statement","volume":"43","author":"Kronenberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2589","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehy334","article-title":"Cardiovascular disease risk associated with elevated lipoprotein(a) attenuates at low low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in a primary prevention setting","volume":"39","author":"Verbeek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.119.312951","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a)-Lowering by 50 mg\/dL (105 nmol\/L) May Be Needed to Reduce Cardiovascular Disease 20% in Secondary Prevention: A Population-Based Study","volume":"40","author":"Madsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pathol.2018.10.016","article-title":"Apheresis for severe hypercholesterolaemia and elevated lipoprotein(a)","volume":"51","author":"Waldmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pathology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1093\/ajh\/hpy068","article-title":"Apheresis to mitigate atherosclerotic vascular disease","volume":"31","author":"Sachais","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-020-00886-0","article-title":"Therapeutic apheresis for management of Lp(a) hyperlipoproteinemia","volume":"22","author":"Pokrovsky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2019.07.001","article-title":"Statin treatment increases lipoprotein(a) levels in subjects with low molecular weight apolipoprotein(a) phenotype","volume":"289","author":"Yahya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2275","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz310","article-title":"Statin therapy increases lipoprotein(a) levels","volume":"41","author":"Tsimikas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001696","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCGEN.117.001696","article-title":"Impact of Apolipoprotein(a) Isoform Size on Lipoprotein(a) Lowering in the HPS2-THRIVE Study","volume":"11","author":"Parish","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Genom. Precis. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2022.04.002","article-title":"Recent advances in demystifying the metabolism of lipoprotein(a)","volume":"349","author":"Chemello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.037184","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a), PCSK9 Inhibition, and Cardiovascular Risk insights from the FOURIER trial","volume":"139","author":"Fazio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2019.10.057","article-title":"Effect of Alirocumab on Lipoprotein(a) and Cardiovascular Risk After Acute Coronary Syndrome","volume":"75","author":"Bittner","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1913805","article-title":"Inclisiran for the Treatment of Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia","volume":"382","author":"Raal","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1912387","article-title":"Two Phase 3 Trials of Inclisiran in Patients with Elevated LDL Cholesterol","volume":"382","author":"Ray","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2019.104413","article-title":"A new dawn for managing dyslipidemias: The era of rna-based therapies","volume":"150","author":"Macchi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1905239","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) reduction in persons with cardiovascular disease","volume":"382","author":"Tsimikas","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2262","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa171","article-title":"Potent lipoprotein(a) lowering following apolipoprotein(a) antisense treatment reduces the pro-inflammatory activation of circulating monocytes in patients with elevated lipoprotein(a)","volume":"41","author":"Stiekema","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01634-w","article-title":"Preclinical development and phase 1 trial of a novel siRNA targeting lipoprotein(a)","volume":"28","author":"Koren","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2022.05.004","article-title":"Study design and rationale for the Olpasiran trials of Cardiovascular Events And lipoprotein(a) reduction-DOSE finding study (OCEAN(a)-DOSE)","volume":"251","author":"Knusel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.5050","article-title":"Single Ascending Dose Study of a Short Interfering RNA Targeting Lipoprotein(a) Production in Individuals with Elevated Plasma Lipoprotein(a) Levels","volume":"327","author":"Nissen","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/FJC.0000000000001429","article-title":"Potential novel RNA -targeting agents for effective Lipoprotein (a) lowering: A systematic Assessment of the evidence from completed and ongoing developmental clinical trials","volume":"82","author":"Milosavljevic","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/12\/20\/2472\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:08:39Z","timestamp":1760130519000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/12\/20\/2472"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["cells12202472"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells12202472","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]]}}}