{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,11]],"date-time":"2026-10-11T03:43:16Z","timestamp":1791690196143,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":148,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,8]],"date-time":"2023-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699401600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"EU-funded PON REACT project","award":["E65F21002640005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E65F21002640005"]}]},{"name":"EU-funded PON REACT project","award":["K12GM63651"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12GM63651"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health Institutional Research and Academic Career Development Award (IRACDA) Post-doctoral program","award":["E65F21002640005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E65F21002640005"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health Institutional Research and Academic Career Development Award (IRACDA) Post-doctoral program","award":["K12GM63651"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12GM63651"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carnosine is an endogenous dipeptide composed of \u03b2-alanine and L-histidine, possessing a multimodal pharmacodynamic profile that includes anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities. Carnosine has also shown its ability to modulate cell proliferation, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and even glycolytic energy metabolism, all processes playing a key role in the context of cancer. Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases of the 20th and 21st centuries. Among the different types of cancer, breast cancer represents the most common non-skin cancer among women, accounting for an estimated 15% of all cancer-related deaths in women. The main aim of the present review was to provide an overview of studies on the anti-cancer activity of carnosine, and in particular its activity against breast cancer. We also highlighted the possible advantages and limitations involved in the use of this dipeptide. The first part of the review entailed a brief description of carnosine\u2019s biological activities and the pathophysiology of cancer, with a focus on breast cancer. The second part of the review described the anti-tumoral activity of carnosine, for which numerous studies have been carried out, especially at the preclinical level, showing promising results. However, only a few studies have investigated the therapeutic potential of this dipeptide for breast cancer prevention or treatment. In this context, carnosine has shown to be able to decrease the size of cancer cells and their viability. It also reduces the levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), cyclin D1, NAD+, and ATP, as well as cytochrome c oxidase activity in vitro. When tested in mice with induced breast cancer, carnosine proved to be non-toxic to healthy cells and exhibited chemopreventive activity by reducing tumor growth. Some evidence has also been reported at the clinical level. A randomized phase III prospective placebo-controlled trial showed the ability of Zn\u2013carnosine to prevent dysphagia in breast cancer patients undergoing adjuvant radiotherapy. Despite this evidence, more preclinical and clinical studies are needed to better understand carnosine\u2019s anti-tumoral activity, especially in the context of breast cancer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12222592","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]],"date-time":"2023-11-09T03:42:08Z","timestamp":1699501328000},"page":"2592","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["The Anti-Cancer Activity of the Naturally Occurring Dipeptide Carnosine: Potential for Breast Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3355-699X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"Maugeri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1007-9918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jay","family":"Sibbitts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Privitera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7050-1375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Cardaci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scuola Superiore di Catania, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9314-4788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Di Pietro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Scuola Superiore di Catania, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2948-7644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Loredana","family":"Leggio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2146-9329","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nunzio","family":"Iraci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susan M.","family":"Lunte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1571-5327","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Caruso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-509X.200658","article-title":"Cancer and cure: A critical analysis","volume":"53","author":"Roy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indian J. 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