{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T13:48:12Z","timestamp":1792504092030,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,12]],"date-time":"2024-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705017600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and aims: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are multifactorial chronic inflammatory disorders affecting the gastrointestinal tract. However, a broad spectrum of extraintestinal manifestations (EIMs) is associated with IBD, affecting several organs and systems, such as the skin, musculoskeletal and hepatobiliary systems, and, not least, the eye. Approximately 10% of IBD patients can develop ocular EIMs (O-EIMs) with a higher prevalence in Crohn\u2019s disease (CD). Eye-redness, photophobia, pain, and blurred vision are the common symptoms, with a wide rate of severity and clinical impact on the quality of life. This narrative review aims to summarize the prevalence, pathogenesis, and current evidence-based management of O-EIMs, underlying the importance of a holistic approach and specialties collaboration for a prompt diagnosis and treatment. Methods: PubMed was searched up to December 2023 to identify relevant studies investigating the pathogenesis, epidemiology, and treatment of O-EIMs in IBD patients. Results: The mechanisms underlying O-EIMs are partially unknown, encompassing immune dysregulation, shared antigens between the eye and the gut, genetic predisposition, and systemic inflammation driven by high levels of interleukins and cytokines in IBD patients. The complexity of O-EIMs\u2019 pathogenesis reflects in the management of these conditions, varying from topical and systemic steroids to immunomodulatory molecules and biologic therapy, such as anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. A multidisciplinary approach is the backbone of the management of O-EIMs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13020142","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,12]],"date-time":"2024-01-12T03:54:34Z","timestamp":1705031674000},"page":"142","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Ophthalmological Manifestations in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Keep an Eye on It"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Giulia","family":"Migliorisi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IBD Center, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanna","family":"Vella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophtalmology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8543-4355","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arianna","family":"Dal Buono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBD Center, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Gabbiadini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBD Center, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anita","family":"Busacca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBD Center, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Loy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBD Center, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0076-8549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Bezzio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBD Center, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3864-8246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Vinciguerra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Ophtalmology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1572-0118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Armuzzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBD Center, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32448-0","article-title":"Worldwide incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in the 21st century: A systematic review of population-based studies","volume":"390","author":"Ng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.2165\/11638120-000000000-00000","article-title":"Diagnosis and Therapeutic Management of Extra-Intestinal Manifestations of Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"72","author":"Trikudanathan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2019.1574569","article-title":"Extraintestinal manifestations in inflammatory bowel disease\u2013epidemiology, genetics, and pathogenesis","volume":"13","author":"Greuter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Rev. 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