{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T01:41:27Z","timestamp":1791855687988,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,6]],"date-time":"2024-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712361600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Veteran\u2019s Health Administration","award":["I01RX002099"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I01RX002099"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Subacute spinal cord injury (SCI) displays a complex pathophysiology associated with pro-inflammation and ensuing tissue damage. Microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the CNS, in concert with infiltrating macrophages, are the primary contributors to SCI-induced inflammation. However, subpopulations of activated microglia can also possess immunomodulatory activities that are essential for tissue remodeling and repair, including the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors that are vital for SCI recovery. Recently, reports have provided convincing evidence that sex-dependent differences exist in how microglia function during CNS pathologies and the extent to which these cells contribute to neurorepair and endogenous recovery. Herein we employed flow cytometry and immunohistochemical methods to characterize the phenotype and population dynamics of activated innate immune cells within the injured spinal cord of age-matched male and female rats within the first week (7 days) following thoracic SCI contusion. This assessment included the analysis of pro- and anti-inflammatory markers, as well as the expression of critical immunomodulatory kinases, including P38 MAPK, and transcription factors, such as NF\u03baB, which play pivotal roles in injury-induced inflammation. We demonstrate that activated microglia from the injured spinal cord of female rats exhibited a significantly diminutive pro-inflammatory response, but enhanced anti-inflammatory activity compared to males. These changes included lower levels of iNOS and TLR4 expression but increased levels of ARG-1 and CD68 in females after SCI. The altered expression of these markers is indicative of a disparate secretome between the microglia of males and females after SCI and that the female microglia possesses higher phagocytic capabilities (increased CD68). The examination of immunoregulatory kinases and transcription factors revealed that female microglia had higher levels of phosphorylated P38Thr180\/Tyr182 MAPK and nuclear NF\u03baB pp50Ser337 but lower amounts of nuclear NF\u03baB pp65Ser536, suggestive of an attenuated pro-inflammatory phenotype in females compared to males after SCI. Collectively, this work provides novel insight into some of the sex disparities that exist in the innate immune response after SCI and indicates that sex is an important variable when designing and testing new therapeutic interventions or interpretating positive or negative responses to an intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13070645","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,8]],"date-time":"2024-04-08T12:01:22Z","timestamp":1712577682000},"page":"645","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Sex Dependent Disparities in the Central Innate Immune Response after Moderate Spinal Cord Contusion in Rat"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7779-158X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mousumi","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"The Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinyoung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashley N.","family":"Burke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas A.","family":"Strong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9742-7240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacqueline","family":"Sagen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"The Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Damien D.","family":"Pearse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"The Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"The Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2014.3702","article-title":"Female Rats Demonstrate Improved Locomotor Recovery and Greater Preservation of White and Gray Matter after Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury Compared to Males","volume":"32","author":"Datto","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. 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