{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T18:03:52Z","timestamp":1793556232352,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":167,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,20]],"date-time":"2024-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726790400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Health Research Board Emerging Investigator","award":["2022-002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022-002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inflammatory arthritis are common chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases characterised by progressive, destructive inflammation of the joints leading to a loss of function and significant comorbidities; importantly, there are no cures and only 20% of patients achieve drug-free remission for over 2 years. Macrophages play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis, however, under the wrong environmental cues, become drivers of chronic synovial inflammation. Based on the current \u201cdogma\u201d, M1 macrophages secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, promoting tissue degradation and joint and bone erosion which over time lead to accelerated disease progression. On the other hand, M2 macrophages secrete anti-inflammatory mediators associated with wound healing, tissue remodelling and the resolution of inflammation. Currently, four subtypes of M2 macrophages have been identified, namely M2a, M2b, M2c and M2d. However, more subtypes may exist due to macrophage plasticity and the ability for repolarisation. Macrophages are highly plastic, and polarisation exists as a continuum with diverse intermediate phenotypes. This plasticity is achieved by a highly amenable epigenome in response to environmental stimuli and shifts in metabolism. Initiating treatment during the early stages of disease is important for improved prognosis and patient outcomes. Currently, no treatment targeting macrophages specifically is available. Such therapeutics are being investigated in ongoing clinical trials. The repolarisation of pro-inflammatory macrophages towards the anti-inflammatory phenotype has been proposed as an effective approach in targeting the M1\/M2 imbalance, and in turn is a potential therapeutic strategy for IA diseases. Therefore, elucidating the mechanisms that govern macrophage plasticity is fundamental for the success of novel macrophage targeting therapeutics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13181586","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]],"date-time":"2024-09-23T03:36:38Z","timestamp":1727062598000},"page":"1586","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["The Contribution of Macrophage Plasticity to Inflammatory Arthritis and Their Potential as Therapeutic Targets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1289-084X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karina","family":"Kulakova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, D09 V209 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Life Sciences Institute, Dublin City University, D09 V209 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tope Remilekun","family":"Lawal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, D09 V209 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eoghan","family":"Mccarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Beaumont Hospital, D09 V2N0 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, D02 YN77 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1690-5595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Achilleas","family":"Floudas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, D09 V209 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Life Sciences Institute, Dublin City University, D09 V209 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Medical School, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39953","article-title":"Baricitinib, Methotrexate, or Combination in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis and No or Limited Prior Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drug Treatment","volume":"69","author":"Fleischmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-022-00211-2","article-title":"FABP4 secreted by M1-polarized macrophages promotes synovitis and angiogenesis to exacerbate rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"10","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R74","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3796","article-title":"Intimal lining layer macrophages but not synovial sublining macrophages display an IL-10 polarized-like phenotype in chronic synovitis","volume":"14","author":"Ambarus","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. 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