{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T13:20:15Z","timestamp":1768828815953,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease affecting all organ systems. The disease preferentially affects females of childbearing age. It runs a variable course. It may run a mild course that may never lead to severe disease and manifestations from critical organ systems. However, it may also run an undulating course with periods of mild and severe disease. It may run as a mild disease, quickly deteriorating to severe disease and affecting multiple organ systems. Various immune pathways related both to the innate and adaptive immune response are involved in the pathogenesis of SLE. Various drugs have been developed targeting cellular and molecular targets in these pathways. Interferons are involved in the pathogenesis of SLE, and various drugs have been developed to target this pathway. T and B lymphocytes are involved in the pathophysiology of SLE. Various treatment modalities targeting cellular targets are available for the treatment of SLE. These include biologic agents targeting B lymphocytes. However, some patients have disease refractory to these treatment modalities. For these patients, cell-based therapies may be used. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation involving autologous cells is an option in the treatment of refractory SLE. Mesenchymal stem cells are also applied in the treatment of SLE. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy is a novel treatment also used in SLE management. This novel treatment method holds major promise for the management of autoimmune diseases and, in particular, SLE. Major hurdles to be overcome are the logistics involved, as well as the need for specialized facilities. This review focuses on novel treatment modalities in SLE targeting cellular and molecular targets in the immune system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14030210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T09:16:26Z","timestamp":1738314986000},"page":"210","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Targeted Cellular Treatment of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4370-7394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Athanassiou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, St. Paul\u2019s Hospital, 55134 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lambros","family":"Athanassiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Asclepeion Hospital, Voula, 16673 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2029-8372","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ifigenia","family":"Kostoglou-Athanassiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Asclepeion Hospital, Voula, 16673 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yehuda","family":"Shoenfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Reichman University, Herzliya 4610101, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2019-215782","article-title":"Transcriptome reprogramming and myeloid skewing in haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"79","author":"Grigoriou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beha.2019.02.002","article-title":"Myeloid disorders after autoimmune disease","volume":"32","author":"Boddu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Haematol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1038\/bmt.2011.185","article-title":"Haematopoietic SCT in severe autoimmune diseases: Updated guidelines of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation","volume":"47","author":"Snowden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2011.04.026","article-title":"Refractory disease in autoimmune diseases","volume":"10","author":"Vasconcelos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marinho, A., Delgado Alves, J., Fortuna, J., Faria, R., Almeida, I., Alves, G., Ara\u00fajo Correia, J., Campar, A., Brand\u00e3o, M., and Crespo, J. (2023). Biological therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus, antiphospholipid syndrome, and Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome: Evidence- and practice-based guidance. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1117699"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1136\/ard-2024-225686","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of sequential therapy with subcutaneous belimumab and one cycle of rituximab in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: The phase 3, randomised, placebo-controlled BLISS-BELIEVE study","volume":"83","author":"Aranow","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.31138\/mjr.290424.eci","article-title":"Evolving Concepts in Treat-to-Target Strategies for Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"35","author":"Nikolopoulos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mediterr. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-070119-115617","article-title":"Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Autoimmune Disease","volume":"72","author":"Alexander","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2017.81","article-title":"Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for treatment of multiple sclerosis","volume":"13","author":"Muraro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.12968\/hmed.2019.80.1.33","article-title":"Haematopoietic stem cell transplants: Principles and indications","volume":"80","author":"Balassa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Hosp. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1097\/MOH.0000000000000466","article-title":"Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for autoimmune diseases: More than just prolonged immunosuppression","volume":"25","author":"Tyndall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malmegrim, K.C.R., Lima-J\u00fanior, J.R., Arruda, L.C.M., de Azevedo, J.T.C., de Oliveira, G.L.V., and Oliveira, M.C. (2018). Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Autoimmune Diseases: From Mechanistic Insights to Biomarkers. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02602"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbmt.2011.11.020","article-title":"Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for autoimmune disease--is it now ready for prime time?","volume":"18","author":"Atkins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1109","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000206750","article-title":"Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in People with Active Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"100","author":"Boffa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-90242-7.00011-0","article-title":"Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for multiple sclerosis","volume":"202","author":"Boffa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/5584_2018_247","article-title":"Stem Cell Therapy for Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"1084","author":"Genc","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ncl.2023.06.002","article-title":"Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation to Treat Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"42","author":"Ross","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2020.102662","article-title":"Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation in systemic sclerosis: Challenges and perspectives","volume":"19","author":"Ruscitti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2490","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.6368","article-title":"Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation vs intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide in diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis: A randomized clinical trial","volume":"311","author":"Farge","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reider, S., Binder, L., F\u00fcrst, S., Hatzl, S., and Blesl, A. (2022). Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Refractory Crohn\u2019s Disease: Should It Be Considered?. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11213463"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-021-02533-0","article-title":"Stem cell therapy for Crohn\u2019s disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical and clinical studies","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1159\/000449090","article-title":"Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Crohn\u2019s Disease: State-of-the-Art Treatment","volume":"35","author":"Hawkey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.4252\/wjsc.v10.i10.134","article-title":"Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for Crohn\u2019s disease: Gaps, doubts and perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Ruiz","year":"2018","journal-title":"World J. Stem Cells."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2017.03.008","article-title":"Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome: A systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Leone","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2013.05.014","article-title":"Hematopoietic and mesenchymal stem cell transplantation for severe and refractory systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"148","author":"Sui","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"380391","article-title":"Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"2012","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Dev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1007\/s00393-016-0190-3","article-title":"Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"75","author":"Alexander","year":"2016","journal-title":"Z. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.berh.2023.101865","article-title":"New and future therapies: Changes in the therapeutic armamentarium for SLE","volume":"37","author":"Askanase","year":"2023","journal-title":"Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.retram.2016.03.004","article-title":"Resetting the immune response after autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for autoimmune diseases","volume":"64","author":"Arruda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0b013e32835264f4","article-title":"Changing winds in refractory autoimmune disease in children: Clearing the road for tolerance with cellular therapies","volume":"24","author":"Swart","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2742","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2017010041","article-title":"Evolution, trends, outcomes, and economics of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in severe autoimmune diseases","volume":"1","author":"Snowden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s00393-020-00795-2","article-title":"Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for autoimmune diseases: Current indications and mode of action, a review on behalf of the EBMT Autoimmune Diseases Working Party (ADWP)","volume":"79","author":"Alexander","year":"2020","journal-title":"Z. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.retram.2016.03.003","article-title":"Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation in autoimmune diseases: From basic science to clinical practice","volume":"64","author":"Kelsey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2022.08.003","article-title":"New insights in systemic lupus erythematosus: From regulatory T cells to CAR-T-cell strategies","volume":"150","author":"Doglio","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-022-01691-w","article-title":"Indications for haematopoietic cell transplantation for haematological diseases, solid tumours and immune disorders: Current practice in Europe, 2022","volume":"57","author":"Snowden","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.1857","article-title":"The actin cytoskeleton of kidney podocytes is a direct target of the antiproteinuric effect of cyclosporine A","volume":"14","author":"Faul","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, H., Cui, M., Kong, N., Jing, J., Xu, Y., Liu, X., Yang, F., Xu, Z., Yan, Y., and Zhao, D. (2023). Cytotoxic CD161\u2212CD8+ TEMRA cells contribute to the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. eBioMedicine, 90.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104507"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1097\/CCO.0b013e328359557e","article-title":"The role of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in the treatment of relapsed\/refractory Hodgkin\u2019s lymphoma","volume":"24","author":"Sureda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4659","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V89.12.4659","article-title":"Blast crisis of chronic myelogenous leukemia in long-lasting systemic lupus erythematosus: Regression of both diseases after autologous bone marrow transplantation","volume":"89","author":"Meloni","year":"1997","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"137","article-title":"Apparent cure of rheumatoid arthritis by bone marrow transplantation","volume":"20","author":"Lowenthal","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"31","article-title":"Resolution of immune-mediated diseases following allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for leukaemia","volume":"9","author":"Yin","year":"1992","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.2174\/157488811794480663","article-title":"Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for systemic sclerosis","volume":"6","author":"Milanetti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-020-0978-2","article-title":"Cardiac safe hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for systemic sclerosis with poor cardiac function: A pilot safety study that decreases neutropenic interval to 5 days","volume":"56","author":"Burt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjx180.020","article-title":"Autologous Haematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Crohn\u2019s Disease: A Retrospective Survey of Long-term Outcomes From the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation","volume":"12","author":"Brierley","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1038\/bmt.2013.18","article-title":"Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome associated chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) treated with autologous and subsequently allogeneic haematopoietic SCT (HSCT)","volume":"48","author":"Bregante","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2643","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2006-07-035766","article-title":"Development of a secondary autoimmune disorder after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for autoimmune diseases: Role of conditioning regimen used","volume":"109","author":"Loh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2734","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc076383","article-title":"Multiple autoimmune diseases after autologous stem-cell transplantation","volume":"357","author":"Bohgaki","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2011-02-336156","article-title":"Secondary autoimmune diseases occurring after HSCT for an autoimmune disease: A retrospective study of the EBMT Autoimmune Disease Working Party","volume":"118","author":"Daikeler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i22","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keac678","article-title":"Dilemma of immunosuppression and infection risk in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"62","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-018-0173-x","article-title":"Five year follow-up after autologous peripheral blood hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for refractory, chronic, corticosteroid-dependent systemic lupus erythematosus: Effect of conditioning regimen on outcome","volume":"53","author":"Burt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1191\/0961203304lu1027oa","article-title":"Autologous stem cell transplantation for systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"13","author":"Jayne","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.10570918","article-title":"Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Refractory Lupus Nephritis","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2011.57","article-title":"Complications of autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for patients with autoimmune diseases","volume":"71","author":"Daikeler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-022-02782-7","article-title":"Shining the light on clinical application of mesenchymal stem cell therapy in autoimmune diseases","volume":"13","author":"Jasim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.68","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell transplantation reverses multiorgan dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus mice and humans","volume":"27","author":"Sun","year":"2009","journal-title":"Stem Cells."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2009.123463","article-title":"Allogenic mesenchymal stem cells transplantation in refractory systemic lupus erythematosus: A pilot clinical study","volume":"69","author":"LLiang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2467","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27548","article-title":"Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in severe and refractory systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"62","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, A., Guo, F., Pan, Q., Chen, S., Chen, J., and Liu, H.F. (2021). Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy: Hope for Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.728190"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E24","DOI":"10.25011\/cim.v46i1.39561","article-title":"Efficacy of Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy on Lupus Nephritis and Renal Function in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"46","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s10238-016-0427-0","article-title":"Long-term safety of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells transplantation for systemic lupus erythematosus: A 6-year follow-up study","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-018-1053-4","article-title":"Safety analysis in patients with autoimmune disease receiving allogeneic mesenchymal stem cells infusion: A long-term retrospective study","volume":"9","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2022.22.e37","article-title":"Engineering Cell Therapies for Autoimmune Diseases: From Preclinical to Clinical Proof of Concept","volume":"22","author":"Oh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immune Netw."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.19","article-title":"Mechanisms of central tolerance for B cells","volume":"17","author":"Nemazee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2014.11.001","article-title":"B cell epitope spreading: Mechanisms and contribution to autoimmune diseases","volume":"163","author":"Cornaby","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1360","DOI":"10.1186\/ar1832","article-title":"Most nuclear systemic autoantigens are extremely disordered proteins: Implications for the etiology of systemic autoimmunity","volume":"7","author":"Carl","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1002\/art.10263","article-title":"Epitope spreading in systemic lupus erythematosus: Identification of triggering peptide sequences","volume":"46","author":"Monneaux","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1038\/nrclinonc.2013.46","article-title":"Treating B-cell cancer with T cells expressing anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptors","volume":"10","author":"Kochenderfer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370516","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/370516","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"2012","author":"Draborg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Dev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1136\/jclinpath-2019-205822","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) reactivation and therapeutic inhibitors","volume":"72","author":"Kerr","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2009.10.011","article-title":"The role of B cells in lupus pathogenesis","volume":"42","author":"Nashi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/08830185.2016.1276903","article-title":"Targeting BAFF and APRIL in systemic lupus erythematosus and other antibody-associated diseases","volume":"36","author":"Samy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1080\/25785826.2019.1698929","article-title":"B cells targeting therapy in the management of systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"43","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunol. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-020-00092-2","article-title":"B cell depletion therapies in autoimmune disease: Advances and mechanistic insights","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1053\/j.seminhematol.2010.01.011","article-title":"Rituximab: Mechanism of action","volume":"47","author":"Weiner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Semin. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3044","DOI":"10.1002\/art.22810","article-title":"Delayed memory B cell recovery in peripheral blood and lymphoid tissue in systemic lupus erythematosus after B cell depletion therapy","volume":"56","author":"Anolik","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1756286418761697","DOI":"10.1177\/1756286418761697","article-title":"B cell-based therapies in CNS autoimmunity: Differentiating CD19 and CD20 as therapeutic targets","volume":"11","author":"Forsthuber","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27233","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of rituximab in moderately-to-severely active systemic lupus erythematosus: The randomized, double-blind, phase II\/III systemic lupus erythematosus evaluation of rituximab trial","volume":"62","author":"Merrill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2368","DOI":"10.1002\/art.38037","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of ocrelizumab in active proliferative lupus nephritis: Results from a randomized, double-blind, phase III study","volume":"65","author":"Mysler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4905","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keac150","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of obinutuzumab in systemic lupus erythematosus patients with secondary non-response to rituximab","volume":"61","author":"Arnold","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2021-220920","article-title":"B-cell depletion with obinutuzumab for the treatment of proliferative lupus nephritis: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"81","author":"Furie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39856","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Epratuzumab in Moderately to Severely Active Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Results From Two Phase III Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trials","volume":"69","author":"Clowse","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.4103\/0976-500X.85930","article-title":"Belimumab: First targeted biological treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"2","author":"Dubey","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40861","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of Belimumab Plus Standard Therapy for Up to Thirteen Years in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"71","author":"Wallace","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2011-200831","article-title":"Effects of belimumab, a B lymphocyte stimulator-specific inhibitor, on disease activity across multiple organ domains in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Combined results from two phase III trials","volume":"71","author":"Manzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3918","DOI":"10.1002\/art.30613","article-title":"A phase III, randomized, placebo-controlled study of belimumab, a monoclonal antibody that inhibits B lymphocyte stimulator, in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"63","author":"Furie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2015-207654","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of subcutaneous tabalumab, a monoclonal antibody to B-cell activating factor, in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Results from ILLUMINATE-2, a 52-week, phase III, multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study","volume":"75","author":"Merrill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2018-213032","article-title":"Phase III trial results with blisibimod, a selective inhibitor of B-cell activating factor, in subjects with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): Results from a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"77","author":"Merrill","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1177\/0961203316654767","article-title":"Assessments of fatigue and disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus enrolled in the Phase 2 clinical trial with blisibimod","volume":"26","author":"Petri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-205067","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of atacicept for prevention of flares in patients with moderate-to-severe systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): 52-week data (APRIL-SLE randomised trial)","volume":"74","author":"Isenberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40360","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Atacicept in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Results of a Twenty-Four-Week, Multicenter, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Arm, Phase IIb Study","volume":"70","author":"Merrill","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5379","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab115","article-title":"Safety and clinical activity of atacicept in the long-term extension of the phase 2b ADDRESS II study in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"60","author":"Wallace","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-023-02084-3","article-title":"Two for one? CAR-T therapy for lymphoma benefits concurrent autoimmune disorders","volume":"58","author":"Bachanova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheng, L., Zhang, Y., Song, Q., Jiang, X., Cao, W., Li, L., Yi, H., Weng, X., Chen, S., and Wang, Z. (2023). Concurrent remission of lymphoma and Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s disease following anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T cell therapy for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: A case report. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1298815"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-023-02086-1","article-title":"CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy in patients with concurrent B-cell Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and rheumatic autoimmune diseases: A propensity score matching study","volume":"58","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1896","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0472-1","article-title":"Therapeutic efficacy of anti-CD19 CAR-T cells in a mouse model of systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"18","author":"Jin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2107725","article-title":"CD19-Targeted CAR T Cells in Refractory Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"385","author":"Mougiakakos","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1002\/art.42784","article-title":"CD19 Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell Treatment: Unraveling the Role of B Cells in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"76","author":"Taubmann","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2124","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02017-5","article-title":"Anti-CD19 CAR T cell therapy for refractory systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"28","author":"Mackensen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2308917","article-title":"CD19 CAR T-Cell Therapy in Autoimmune Disease\u2014A Case Series with Follow-up","volume":"390","author":"Taubmann","year":"2024","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00424-0","article-title":"CAR T-cell therapy rescues adolescent with rapidly progressive lupus nephritis from haemodialysis","volume":"403","author":"Krickau","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1136\/ard-2024-225785","article-title":"BCMA-CD19 compound CAR T cells for systemic lupus erythematosus: A phase 1 open-label clinical trial","volume":"83","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salazar-Camarena, D.C., Palafox-S\u00e1nchez, C.A., Cruz, A., Mar\u00edn-Rosales, M., and Mu\u00f1oz-Valle, J.F. (2020). Analysis of the receptor BCMA as a biomarker in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-63390-0"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, J., Cheng, Q., Laurent, S.A., Thaler, F.S., Beenken, A.E., Meinl, E., Kr\u00f6nke, G., Hiepe, F., and Alexander, T. (2024). B-Cell Maturation Antigen (BCMA) as a Biomarker and Potential Treatment Target in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202409.0069.v1"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e179433","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.179433","article-title":"Selective CAR T cell-mediated B cell depletion suppresses IFN signature in SLE","volume":"9","author":"Wilhelm","year":"2024","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(24)00140-6","article-title":"B cell-targeting chimeric antigen receptor T cells as an emerging therapy in neuroimmunological diseases","volume":"23","author":"Haghikia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-023-01723-z","article-title":"CAR-cell therapy in the era of solid tumor treatment: Current challenges and emerging therapeutic advances","volume":"22","author":"Maalej","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1186\/s13046-022-02327-z","article-title":"CAR race to cancer immunotherapy: From CAR T, CAR NK to CAR macrophage therapy","volume":"41","author":"Pan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.currproblcancer.2021.100826","article-title":"CAR T-cell therapy for B-cell lymphoma","volume":"46","author":"Denlinger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2737","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2022015789","article-title":"CAR T cells as a second-line therapy for large B-cell lymphoma: A paradigm shift?","volume":"139","author":"Westin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haslauer, T., Greil, R., Zaborsky, N., and Geisberger, R. (2021). CAR T-Cell Therapy in Hematological Malignancies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22168996"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2022008525","article-title":"Toxicity and efficacy of CAR T-cell therapy in primary and secondary CNS lymphoma: A meta-analysis of 128 patients","volume":"7","author":"Cook","year":"2023","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1097\/PPO.0000000000000035","article-title":"Managing cytokine release syndrome associated with novel T cell-engaging therapies","volume":"20","author":"Maude","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer J."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"2430","article-title":"How I treat refractory CRS and ICANS after CAR T-cell therapy","volume":"141","author":"Jain","year":"2023","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2386187","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/2386187","article-title":"Immunotherapy with CAR-Modified T Cells: Toxicities and Overcoming Strategies","volume":"2018","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6066.CIR-13-0006","article-title":"T cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors can cause anaphylaxis in humans","volume":"1","author":"Maus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2400209","article-title":"Secondary Cancers after Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell Therapy","volume":"390","author":"Verdun","year":"2024","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2014-05-552729","article-title":"Current concepts in the diagnosis and management of cytokine release syndrome","volume":"124","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1111\/bjh.15644","article-title":"Cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity after CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-modified (CAR-) T cell therapy","volume":"183","author":"Hay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Haematol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1407222","article-title":"Chimeric antigen receptor T cells for sustained remissions in leukemia","volume":"371","author":"Maude","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2014.01.007","article-title":"Conversion of danger signals into cytokine signals by hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells for regulation of stress-induced hematopoiesis","volume":"14","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2010.31","article-title":"Treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia with genetically targeted autologous T cells: Case report of an unforeseen adverse event in a phase I clinical trial","volume":"18","author":"Brentjens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2019.1629904","article-title":"Tocilizumab for the treatment of chimeric antigen receptor T cell-induced cytokine release syndrome","volume":"15","author":"Kotch","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbmt.2018.12.756","article-title":"Cytokine Release Syndrome with Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell Therapy","volume":"25","author":"Frey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-07-294520","article-title":"Immune responses to transgene and retroviral vector in patients treated with ex vivo-engineered T cells","volume":"117","author":"Lamers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02767-w","article-title":"Unanswered questions following reports of secondary malignancies after CAR-T cell therapy","volume":"30","author":"Levine","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1080\/08830185.2021.1984449","article-title":"The immunologic aspects of cytokine release syndrome and graft versus host disease following CAR T cell therapy","volume":"41","author":"Mansouri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-021-00842-6","article-title":"Rapid manufacturing of non-activated potent CAR T cells","volume":"6","author":"Ghassemi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1982","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-22-1276","article-title":"A Novel Autologous CAR-T Therapy, YTB323, with Preserved T-cell Stemness Shows Enhanced CAR T-cell Efficacy in Preclinical and Early Clinical Development","volume":"13","author":"Dickinson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1136\/ard-2024-226142","article-title":"CD19-CAR T-cell therapy induces deep tissue depletion of B cells","volume":"84","author":"Tur","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcyt.2024.09.008","article-title":"Successful generation of fully human, second generation, anti-CD19 CAR T cells for clinical use in patients with diverse autoimmune disorders","volume":"27","author":"Mougiakakos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cytotherapy"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keae108","article-title":"CAR-T cell therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus and beyond: A brave new world?","volume":"63","author":"Duivenvoorden","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.2174\/1573397119666230214103044","article-title":"Autologous CD19-Targeted Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR)T-Cells as the Future of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Treatment","volume":"19","author":"Kambayana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Rheumatol. Rev."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/14\/3\/210\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:25:00Z","timestamp":1760027100000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/14\/3\/210"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"references-count":132,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["cells14030210"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells14030210","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]}}}